Analysis of tapered ENF specimen and characterization of bonded interface fracture under Mode-II loading

An engineering approach for evaluating the shear-mode (Mode-II) fracture toughness of wood–wood and wood-composite bonded interfaces is presented. A tapered beam on elastic foundation model is developed to analyze and design a linear tapered end-notched flexure (TENF) specimen for fracture tests of bonded interfaces. The elastic foundation model is verified numerically by finite element analysis and experimentally by compliance calibration tests, which demonstrate that the present model can accurately predict the compliance and compliance rate-change of the specimen, and with proper design, an approximate constant rate of compliance change with respect to crack length can be achieved. The proposed TENF specimen can be used for Mode-II fracture toughness evaluations with reasonable confidence in the linearity of compliance crack-length relationship. The fracture of wood–wood and wood-composite bonded interfaces under Mode-II loading is experimentally evaluated using the proposed TENF specimen, and the corresponding values of critical strain energy release rate are obtained. The modeling technique and testing method presented can be efficiently used for characterization of Mode-II fracture of bonded bimaterial interfaces.     

高温冲击拉伸试验中的快速接触加温技术

本文阐述了高温冲击拉伸试验技术中基于大热容量热惯性温升极大值原理的快速接触加温技术;研制了稳定性好、加热效率高、总体热惯性大、断电温升至极大值的稳定时间长的一对新的加温炉。测试结果表明,可以在试件上获得了最高可达1073K的近似稳定和均匀的温度场。通过实验研究建立了试件温度、稳定炉温和加温炉加热自动断电设定温度之间的标定关系。利用此标定关系,可以根据试验所需要的试件温度方便地确定加温炉自动断电设定温度,并通过监控稳定炉温来实施的所需试件温度下的冲击拉伸试验。本文还对高温冲击拉伸试验中的相关问题进行了分析讨论。     

Infrared temperature sensing of mechanically loaded specimens: Thermal analysis

Infrared temperature-sensing techniques have the major advantages of virtually no interference of the sensor with the sensed phenomenon and fast inherent response. On the other hand, infrared temperature sensing, as a superficial measurement technique, does not indicate the specimen's core temperatures, and hence a complementary thermal analysis is required. A thermal analysis of surface temperature measurements of a mechanically loaded cylindrical specimen is presented. The specimen is modeled as an infinite cylinder, suddenly exposed to a uniformly distributed volumetric heat source. This heat source results from the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy. A closed-form solution is obtained and numerical examples are given for metallic and polymeric specimens. The current analysis provides the upper boundaries for temperature differences between the core and the surface temperatures when compared with the actual problem of a finite specimen. It is shown that surface temperature measurement is a good indication of the core temperature for metallic specimens but may lead to some poor results in the case of polymeric specimens. It is found that the transient thermal response of the infinite cylinder to sudden heating behaves like a first-order process. In the case of cyclic loading, the typical time scale of loading is found to be at least two orders of magnitude shorter than the typical time scale of heat transfer. Hence, the specimen is affected by the average power of heat generation, and not by the instantaneous effect of heating within a single loading cycle.     

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of an In-Plane Shear Specimen Designed for Ductile Fracture Studies

An in-plane shear specimen made of dual phase steel designed for ductile fracture studies is presented and then analyzed experimentally and numerically. In the experiment, digital image correlation (DIC) technique is utilized to measure the deformation of the specimen. Based on the implicit nonlinear FE solver Abaqus/Standard, numerical analysis of the specimen is performed by using plane stress and solid elements respectively. The elongation of the specimen’s gauge length and the shear strain distribution within the shear zone are compared between the experimental and numerical results and a general good agreement is obtained. Thereafter, based on calculated results, the stress state of the shear zone is investigated in detail. It is shown that the shear stress is dominant within the shear zone despite of the emergence of normal stresses. The deformation is concentrated in the shear zone, where the incipient fracture is most likely to occur. The stress triaxiality and the Lode parameter at the fracture initiation are found to be maintained at a relatively low level, which implies that the stress state achieved by the specimen is close to pure shear. The present study demonstrates that the proposed in-plane shear specimen is suitable for investigation of the fracture behavior of high strength materials under shear stress states.     

The investigation on dynamic fracture behavour of materials under compressive-shear combined stress waves

In this paper, an improved plate impact experimental technique is presented for studying dynamic fracture mechanism of materials, under the conditions that the impacting loading is provided by a single pulse and the loading time is in the sub-microsecond range. The impacting tests are carried out on the pressure-shear gas gun. The loading rate achieved is dK/dt∼10⁸ MPa m^1/2s⁻¹. With the elimination of influence of the specimen boundary, the plane strain state of a semi-infinite crack in an infinite elastic plate is used to simulate the deformation fields of crack tip. The single pulses are obtained by using the “momentum trap” technique. Therefore, the one-time actions of the single pulse are achieved by eradicating the stress waves reflected from the specimen boundary or diffracted from the crack surfaces. In the current study, some important phenomena have been observed. The special loading of the single pulse can bring about material damage around crack tip, and affect the material behavior, such as kinking and branching of the crack propagation. Failure mode transitions from mode I to mode II crack are observed under asymmetrical impact conditions. The mechanisms of the dynamic crack propagation are consistent with the damage failure model. The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 19672066 and 18981180-4) and the Key Project of Chinese Academy of Sciences (No. KJ951-1-20)     

Novel Technique for Static and Dynamic Shear Testing of Ti6Al4V Sheet

Few shear test techniques exist that cover the range of strain rates from static to dynamic. In this work, a novel specimen geometry is presented that can be used for the characterisation of the shear behaviour of sheet metals over a wide range of strain rates using traditional tensile test devices. The main objectives during the development of the shear specimen have been 1) obtaining a homogeneous stress state with low stress triaxiality in the zone of the specimen subjected to shear and 2) appropriateness for dynamic testing. Additionally, avoiding premature specimen failure due to edge effects was aimed at. Most dimensional and practical constraints arose from the dynamic test in which the specimen is loaded by mechanical waves in a split Hopkinson tensile bar device. Design of the specimen geometry is based on finite element simulations using ABAQUS/Explicit. The behaviour of the specimen is compared with the more commonly used simple shear specimen with clamped grips. Advantages of the new technique are shown. The technique is applied to Ti6Al4V sheet. During the high strain rate experiments high speed photography and digital image correlation are used to obtain the local shear strain in the specimen. Comparison of experimental and numerical results shows good correspondence.     

DIC-Based Surface Motion Correction for ESPI Measurements

Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) provides a sensitive technique for measuring surface deformations. The technique involves comparison of the speckle phase angles within surface images measured before and after material deformation. This phase angle comparison requires that the speckle positions be consistent in all images. A lateral shift between image sets of just one pixel substantially degrades ESPI measurements, while a shift of two or more pixels typically causes complete decorrelation and compromises the measurement entirely. To prevent such rigid body motions, the specimen and the optical system must be rigidly fixed. This requirement typically impedes use of the ESPI method in applications outside laboratories or where it is necessary to remove the specimen from the optical setup between ESPI measurements. Here, Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is used to track speckle motion caused by specimen displacement between ESPI phase stepped image sets. The measured image set can then be mathematically shifted to restore the original speckle locations, thereby recorrelating the ESPI measurement. Examples are presented where ESPI measurements are successfully made with specimen shifts over 60 pixels.     

Structural testing at high temperature

This paper describes the equipment and procedures used in testing a large multicell box beam under various combinations of applied loading and transient heating. Data are presented on the performance of radiant-heat lamps when enclosed by aluminum reflectors and powered by automobile-type batteries. In addition, solutions are given to the following special problems introduced by simulating fuel conditions: (1) sealing the specimen without disturbing the normal paths for heat flow; (2) protecting strain gages and thermocouples from the simulated fuel.     

Nonlinear shear behavior and interlaminar shear strength of unidirectional polymer matrix composites: A numerical study

Detailed finite element implementation is presented for a recently developed technique (He et al., 2012) to characterize nonlinear shear stress–strain response and interlaminar shear strength based on short-beam shear test of unidirectional polymeric composites. The material characterization couples iterative three-dimensional finite element modeling for stress calculation with digital image correlation for strain evaluation. Extensive numerical experiments were conducted to examine the dependence of the measured shear behavior on specimen and test configurations. The numerical results demonstrate that consistent results can be achieved for specimens with various span-to-thickness ratios, supporting the accurate material properties for the carbon/epoxy composite under study.     

Microscale Experiments at Elevated Temperatures Evaluated with Digital Image Correlation

The methods of uniform heating and resistive (Joule) heating for microscale freestanding surface-micromachined thin metal film specimens were evaluated by a combination of full-field strain measurements by optical microscopy/Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and microscopic infrared (IR) imaging. The efficacy of each method was qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated with the aid of strain fields and IR-obtained temperature distributions along 850 nm thick freestanding microscale specimens subjected to uniaxial tension while heated by each method. The strain and temperature fields were quite uniform in experiments carried out with uniform specimen heating except for minor end-effects at the specimen grips. However, the resistively heated specimens showed highly uneven temperature distribution varying by 50°C along the 1,000 μm specimen gauge length. This high temperature gradient resulted in strain localization and 40% reduction in yield and ultimate tensile strengths of resistively heated specimens compared to the uniformly heated ones. Therefore, it is concluded that resistive heating is not a reliable method for conducting microscale temperature experiments with metallic films.     

三维电子散斑干涉法在检测残余应力中的应用

本文提出一种新的大错位三维电子散斑干涉法,并将其和钻 法检测残余应力技术结合起来,其特点一是利用三个激光器,从不同的方向照射被测物体,二是在被测物附近放置一参考物,利用大错位棱镜,使物体表面的信息和参考物上的信息都进及ＣＣＤ中,可以得到与三个位移场有关的电子散斑干涉条纹图,并可以运算和分离获得独立的ｕ,ｖ和ｗ场信息,本文介绍了大错位三维电子散斑干涉法的原理、方法和系统,并将其应用于钻孔法释放残余应     

Real-time moiré interferometry

A high-frequency moiré interferometric technique to continuously monitor in-plane surface displacement is presented. This technique employs fiber optics and a thermoplastic device to holographically record the initial carrier pattern produced on the surface of a test specimen. The carrier is modulated as the specimen deforms and moiré fringes, indicative of in-plane displacement, are observed in real time. Unwanted holointerferometric patterns are eliminated by appropriately adjusting the polarization of the reference wavefront. This paper describes a demonstration of the real-time technique as applied to the study of deformations in a notched beam subjected to three-point loading. Paper was presented at the 1986 SEM Spring Conference on Experimental Mechanics, held in New Orleans, LA on June 8–13.     

一种新的高应变率复合压剪实验技术

提出了一种新的基于Hopkinson杆实验技术的在102~103s-1高应变率下实现压剪复合加载的实验装置,并给出了相应的理论分析和数值模拟。为了获取材料在复杂应力下的本构关系,借助斜飞片冲击实验的思想,对Hopkinson杆进行改造,将入射杆的末端改进为截锥形,以便在试样中同时产生压缩和剪切应力。利用有限元分析软件LS-DYNA对试样中的应力波传播进行模拟计算,并利用改进装置进行了初步实验。计算和分析结果表明,利用所设计的装置可以实现对试样的动态压剪复合加载,获得材料在高应变率复杂应力加载下的本构响应,进而建立材料在复杂应力状态下本构行为的描述。     

用于测量材料高温动态力学性能的SHPB技术

讨论了高温下分离式Hopkinson压杆(SHPB)实验的两种方案:单独加热试样并快速对杆与同时加热试样和杆再修正温度梯度的影响。前者避免了杆被加热但是操作复杂,后者简单稳定。为了分析后者温度梯度的影响设计了一个简化模型,采用数值计算进行修正,提出了精度适当的假设,并且进行了实验验证。测量了试件和杆一起加热时杆上的温度分布,证实计算采用的温度分布是合理的。据此得到的专用于材料高温动态力学性能测试的SHPB数据处理公式简单实用,便于推广使用。     

Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation: A Novel Method for Measuring Three-Dimensional Deformation using Two-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) provides a full-field non-contact optical method for accurate deformation measurement of materials, devices and structures. The measurement of three-dimensional (3D) deformation using DIC in general requires imaging with two cameras and a 3D-DIC code. In the present work, a new experimental technique, namely, Diffraction Assisted Image Correlation (DAIC) for 3D displacement measurement using a single camera and 2D-DIC algorithm is presented. A transmission diffraction grating is placed between the specimen and the camera, resulting in multiple images which are then used to obtain apparent in-plane displacements using 2D-DIC. The true in-plane and out-of-plane displacements of the specimen are obtained from the apparent in-plane displacements and the diffraction angle of the grating. The validity and accuracy of the DAIC method are demonstrated through 3D displacement measurement of a small thin membrane. This technique provides new avenues for performing 3D deformation measurements at small length scales and/or dynamic loading conditions.     

Micromechanical modelling and simulation of chopped random fiber reinforced polymer composites with progressive debonding damage

The aim of the present paper is to provide a quantitative prediction of the elastic-damage behaviour of randomly oriented fiber polymer composites. A constitutive model based on micromechanical considerations is presented. The nucleation and growth of voids induced by progressive fiber debonding is combined with the constitutive relationship. Failure resulting of excessive damage accumulation is captured by a critical void volume criterion and a vanishing element technique. Experimentally, damage accumulation in random glass fiber–polyester composites was monitored by a videoextensometry technique able to control the local strain rate. Good agreement of model predictions with experimental data is pointed out. The model was implemented into a finite element program and numerical applications on composite structures (a tensile specimen and a plate containing a central hole) are presented to illustrate the capability of the approach. Digital image correlation method was also used to measure the full-field strain in a notched specimen under tensile loading. The simulated results compared favourably with those obtained from experiments.     

Elevated temperature testing with the torsional split hopkinson bar

The torsional split-Hopkinson-bar technique is modified for high-strain-rate testing at elevated temperatures by heating the specimen rapidly and keeping the rest of the apparatus at room temperature. Tests have been conducted with specimens made of several materials (Haynes-188, 1020 steel, and 1151 steel) at temperatures ranging from 650°C to 1060°C and strain rates on the order of 1000 s^–1.     

A Review of External Pressure Testing Techniques for Shells including a Novel Volume-Control Method

A review of conventional testing methods for applying external hydrostatic pressure to buckling-critical shells is presented. A new “volume-control” pressure testing method, aimed at preventing catastrophic specimen failures and improving control of specimen deformation near the critical load, is also introduced. The implementation of conventional and volume-control systems in an experimental program involving the destructive pressure testing of ring-stiffened cylinders is described. The volume control method was found to improve control of the specimen deformations, especially near the critical load, and catastrophic failures observed while using a conventional setup were avoided. The quasi-static tracking of post-collapse load-deformation relationships for snap-through buckling behaviour was possible while using a volume-control system, but precise control of dynamic shell deformations during buckling was not achieved for specimens failing with large buckling lobes. Expressions for estimating the available control over specimen deformations for pressure testing systems are presented.