The inception and evolution of earthmoving soil mechanics

Soil and test conditions important to earthmoving machinery have been found to be significantly different from all other fields of endeavour with the partial exception of tillage studies. This could be the subject of a long dissertation. Broadly, however, soil conditions which produce critical mobility problems are much too soft and/or wet to be of concern to the earthmoving contractor who has to meet rigid specifications on acceptable types and moisture contents of fill soils. Occasional soft spots are considered as nuisances instead of indicators of the need for major design compromises.

Civil engineers are concerned with the same types of soil, but in a vastly different context. They must design soil structures which will never reach initial soil failure. Earthmoving processes, on the other hand, must accept soil failures in many different forms and degrees and utilize post-failure soil strength to perform their tasks efficiently.

Tillage studies display many important similarities to earthmoving studies, particularly in regard to the types of soil failures of importance. They are, in reality, merely another form of earthmoving; by definition, if nothing more. Earthmoving processes can range into much stronger soils, but this alone is insufficient to set them apart.

The term Earthmoving Soil Mechanics was introduced in 1962⁽²⁰⁾. This paper more clearly defines the implications of the new terminology and illustrates the first successful application of soil mechanics and model analysis principles in the earthmoving industry.     

Ability of clay fill to support construction plant

Good ground conditions are required for the operation of modern earthmoving plants due to the higher contact pressures imposed by them on the supporting surface. The maximum allowable contact pressure has been arrived at by a simplified theory based on the bearing capacity of clay soils. From these considerations it appears that standards earthmoving tyres with inflation pressures of greater than 50 lb/in² should be used only on stiff or strong clays, but for firm clays it is necessary to reduce the inflation pressures to between 25 and 50 lb/in², depending on the shear strength of the soil. It would also seem desirable to replace the standard wheels on a particular plant with larger wheels capable of carrying the load under lower inflation pressures.     

Experimental evaluation of cutting dynamic models in soil bin facility

Computer Aided Engineering methods in earthmoving machines design and their automation require the development of soil-cutting models. These models both in two or three dimensions, static or dynamic, fitted for frictional or cohesive soils, must be mutually compatible and must function with soil transportation models and with machine locomotion characteristic models. In this work two different methods of soil cutting have been evaluated, both of them based on the classical wedge method, in order to verify their applicability to test conditions in the new soil bin facility of CEMOTER. From experimental results the possibility of using dynamic models of soil cutting in the frequency domain is discussed, to improve earthmoving machinery performance by automation and implementation of open and closed-loop control. After a preliminary analysis of a plane blade under different test conditions in sandy soil, soil cutting theoretical models of a simple implement are compared with respective scale models by tests performed in a soil bin facility at various operating speeds and depths, in order to investigate their applicability and the dynamic behaviour of the soil cutting force.     

A framework for earthmoving blade/soil model development

This paper presents a framework for earthmoving blade/soil model development that combines the advantages of both the analytical and numerical methods. This framework greatly expands the limitations of traditional analytically formulated models and can be effectively used to tackle the technical issues that are faced with complex dozing. This model has a lot of new capabilities compared to other models that can be found in the open literatures. Some of the new capabilities are (1) it is a three-dimensional model and is able to account for the tilted and angled blade operations on different terrain conditions: level, uphill, and downhill; (2) uneven cutting can be effectively handled by the proposed model; (3) the transient soil piling, spillage process, and earthmoving productivity can be predicted and animated; (4) the forces and moments can be predicted as well as their centroids; (5) the cutting soil volumetric expansion and transient surcharge effect on resultant forces and moments acting on blade are well established; (6) many systematic relationships involving the dynamic dozing are well established through this framework. Numerical examples and qualitative validations are provided to demonstrate and verify the capabilities of this newly developed framework.     

Earthmoving in minature

This paper has described a similitude approach to earthmoving, using small-scale models based on a dimensional analysis with certain simplifying assumptions. An earthmoving mechanics laboratory has been developed, with facilities for testing two sizes of models.

Despite the variability of real soils, and the complexity of the soil action during earthmoving processes, the somewhat idealized model tests are useful and exceedingly realistic. Models yield design information that is not available by any other means. Full-scale testing is still needed for final evaluation of an actual machine.     

Spectrum analysis of road roughness for earthmoving machinery

The power spectral density functions of roughness of road surfaces for earthmoving machines such as tractors, scrapers and dumpers were determined by use of an accelerometer mounted on a towed fifth wheel of which the frequency-response function had previously been known. From obtained data, a range of power spectral density curves of the road roughness for these earthmoving machines was derived and expressed mathematically.     

Identification,design and kinematic analysis of an earthmoving mechanism

Earthmoving mechanisms in motor graders are critical components for earthwork, compaction and re-handling, and yet they have not received much attention by mechanical engineering research in recent times. In this paper, a comprehensive analysis, from mechanism identification and innovative design to kinematic analysis, is presented. First, the mechanism analysis and synthesis method based on multibody system dynamics is carried out through the analysis of the system topology and connectivity. We conclude that the earthmoving multibody system is a spatial hybrid mechanism, which consists of a spatial parallel mechanism and a spatial serial mechanism. Second, a number of new spatial parallel mechanisms, which are advantageous with respect to the original one under certain conditions, are generated. The kinematic characteristics of the parallel mechanism family are investigated in terms of constraint equations formulated in natural coordinates. Third and last, kinematic simulations and optimization processes are carried out to evaluate the advantages of the presented spatial parallel mechanisms. Simulation results show that these mechanisms can provide better kinematic performance.     

Active disturbance rejection adaptive control of uncertain nonlinear systems: theory and application

This paper proposes an active disturbance rejection adaptive controller for tracking control of a class of uncertain nonlinear systems with consideration of both parametric uncertainties and uncertain nonlinearities by effectively integrating adaptive control with extended state observer via backstepping method. Parametric uncertainties are handled by the synthesized adaptive law and the remaining uncertainties are estimated by extended state observer and then compensated in a feedforward way. Moreover, both matched uncertainties and unmatched uncertainties can be estimated by constructing an extended state observer for each channel of the considered nonlinear plant. Since parametric uncertainties can be reduced by parameter adaptation, the learning burden of extended state observer is much reduced. Consequently, high-gain feedback is avoided and improved tracking performance can be expected. The proposed controller theoretically guarantees a prescribed transient tracking performance and final tracking accuracy in general while achieving asymptotic tracking when the uncertain nonlinearities are not time-variant. The motion control of a motor-driven robot manipulator is investigated as an application example with some suitable modifications and improvements, and comparative simulation results are obtained to verify the high tracking performance nature of the proposed control strategy.     

TC4在动态载荷下的剪切行为研究

使用分离式霍布金森压杆(SHPB)对2种TC4(Ti-6Al-4V)试样(单边剪切试样与双边剪切试样)在应变率104 s-1下进行动态剪切加载，利用SIM D8高速照相系统捕捉了绝热剪切带扩展的整个历程，得到了TC4在拍照时刻的应力应变曲线；使用金相显微镜和SEM扫描电镜对TC4绝热剪切带的微观形貌进行观察，发现绝热剪切带宽度为5~12 μm，断口从韧窝断裂演变为解理断裂，可观测到韧窝状与河流花样断口形貌，但是并未看到相变的发生；对2种试样就产生绝热剪切带的形式与敏感性进行了分析，实验表明双边试样更易产生绝热剪切带；通过高速照相系统的标定换算，得到TC4绝热剪切带产生的临界剪切应变在78%~88%之间。在SHPB动态加载条件下，TC4绝热剪切带的扩展速度在460~1 250 m/s之间，且应变率越高，剪切带扩展越快，扩展平均速度与名义应变率近似呈线性关系；另外，在同一加载速率下，剪切带并不是匀速扩展，其扩展速度随载荷的增加而不断增加。     

Numerical simulation of heat transfer performance of an air-cooled steam condenser in a thermal power plant

Numerical simulation of the thermal-flow characteristics and heat transfer performance is made of an air-cooled steam condenser (ACSC) in a thermal power plant by considering the effects of ambient wind speed and direction, air-cooled platform height, location of the main factory building and terrain condition. A simplified physical model of the ACSC combined with the measured data as input parameters is used in the simulation. The wind speed effects on the heat transfer performance and the corresponding steam turbine back pressure for different heights of the air-cooled platform are obtained. It is found that the turbine back pressure (absolute pressure) increases with the increase of wind speed and the decrease of platform height. This is because wind can not only reduce the flowrate in the axial fans, especially at the periphery of the air-cooled platform, due to cross-flow effects, but also cause an air temperature increase at the fan inlet due to hot air recirculation, resulting in the deterioration of the heat transfer performance. The hot air recirculation is found to be the dominant factor because the main factory building is situated on the windward side of the ACSC.     

Adaptive Stabilization of Nonnecessarily Inversely Stable First-Order Continuous-Time Systems under Saturated Input

This paper presents an indirect adaptive stabilization scheme forfirst-order continuous-time systems under saturated input which isdescribed by a sigmoidal function. The singularities are avoided througha modification scheme for the estimated plant parameter vector so thatits associated Sylvester matrix is guaranteed to be nonsingular andthen the estimated plant model is controllable. The modificationmechanism involves the use of a hysteresis switching function. Analternative hybrid scheme, whose estimated parameters are updated atsampling instants is also given to solve a similar adaptivestabilization problem. Such a scheme also uses hysteresis switching formodification of the parameter estimates so as to ensure thecontrollability of the estimated plant model.     

The cutting of soil by narrow blades

The available models for predicting the forces acting on a narrow soil cutting blade have required separate measurements of the shape of the three-dimensional soil failure pattern ahead of the blade. It is proposed that a three-dimensional model consisting of straight line failure patterns in the soil can be used to predict both the draft forces and the volume of soil disturbed in front of a narrow blade. Limit equilibrium mechanics equations are written for the soil wedges in terms of an unknown angle of the failure zone and the theoretical draft force is minimized with respect to this angle. Force factors are thus found which are of the type to fit Reece's general earthmoving equation, but which vary with the width to depth ratio of the blade as well as with the rake angle of the blade and the friction angle of the soil. In addition the approximate geometry of the three-dimensional failure pattern in the soil is predicted for varying blade shapes and soil strengths. This allows the design of simple tools on the basis of their draft force requirements and their soil cutting efficiency. The draft force predictions and failure geometry calculations are shown to have considerable verification by experimental results.     

一种浆体管道中气体含量的测试方法

实际的浆体输送管道中通常都含有少量的气体并会使泵的性能明显下降,现有的常规方法很难测量该气体含量。本文给出了浆体管道中气液固三相伪均质流和非均质流压力波波速计算式,数值分析表明,波速随着浆体中气体含量增加而迅速降低,并应用实例探讨了利用声速来测量浆体管道中气体含量的可行性和具体的测试方法,结果表明,通过在线测量管路中声波的速度或频率可以较准确地获得浆体中微量气体体积含量。     

Optimum design of a supercavitating torpedo considering overall size,shape, and structural configuration

A supercavitating torpedo is a complex high speed undersea weapon that is exposed to extreme operating conditions due to the weapon’s speed. To successfully design a torpedo that can survive in this environment, it is necessary to consider the torpedo shell as a critical component. The shell of a supercavitating torpedo must be designed to survive extreme loading conditions (depth pressure and thrust loading), meet frequency constraints, and fit inside the cavity generated by the cavitator. In this research, an algorithm to determine the optimal configuration of the torpedo is presented. This method formulates an optimization problem that determines the general shape of the torpedo in order to satisfy the required performance criteria. Simultaneously, a method to determine the optimal stiffener configuration in the torpedo structure is also presented. A torpedo configuration for a desired speed is obtained and the details of the process are thoroughly discussed.     

Rainwater rivulets running on a stay cable subject to wind

Stay cables are likely to vibrate under the combined effect of rain and wind in the so-called phenomenon rain–wind-induced vibrations (RWIVs). Rain takes part in the phenomenon in the shape of water rivulets that run along the cables. In previous articles, the authors investigated the conditions under which such rivulets can be formed. Using a lubrication model, it was shown for a particular wind–cable configuration that rivulets can only be exhibited above a critical wind speed for which gravity is overcome. The rivulets’ position was also predicted with the model. The results were validated by experiments.In this paper, the wind speed at which rivulets appear and their position are expressed for an arbitrary wind–cable orientation. A maximum wind speed for the rivulets’ existence is then estimated as the result of a balance between the drag force and the surface tension. A wind speed interval is consequently obtained for the rivulets’ appearance and maintenance on a cylinder. The boundaries of this interval are expressed in term of Weber numbers, comparing the surface tension and wind effect. These predictions are successfully compared with all the measurements that have been published in the literature.     

轮对非线性动力学系统蛇行运动的解析解

在对铁路车辆系统的极限环幅值和非线性临界速度进行分析时通常采用数值方法, 不便于研究其随系统参数的变化规律. 轮对系统保留了影响车辆系统动力学性能的几个关键要素: 如轮轨几何非线性约束、轮轨接触蠕滑关系和悬挂系统等, 可以反映铁路车辆系统蛇行运动的本质特性. 轮对系统自由度少、参数少, 可以采用解析方法进行分析. 本文选取合适的特征量把轮对非线性动力学方程无量纲化, 得到了带有小参数的两自由度微分方程; 采用多尺度方法对该方程进行了解析求解; 给出了轮对系统极限环幅值的解析表达式并对其稳定性进行了判定; 给出了轮对系统的分岔速度解析表达式, 并进而获得系统的非线性临界速度的解析表达式. 在对得到的解析解用数值结果进行验证后, 用得到的解析解进行了系统参数影响分析. 传统的分岔图计算方法(如降速法、路径跟踪法等)需对微分方程进行大量数值积分计算方可求解系统的非线性临界速度值, 而通过本文获得的解析表达式可直接给出系统的非线性临界速度值和极限环幅值, 便于研究轮对系统动力学特性随参数的变化规律,进行快速方案比对和筛选, 为转向架结构优化设计提供参考.      

A Quasi-linear Viscoelastic Constitutive Equation for the Brain: Application to Hydrocephalus

Hydrocephalus is a condition which occurs when an excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain causes enlargement of the ventricular cavities. Modern treatments of shunt implantation are effective, but have an unacceptably high rate of failure in most reported series. One of the common factors causing shunt failure is the misplacement of the proximal catheter's tip, which can be remedied if the healed configuration of the ventricular space can be predicted. In a recent study we have shown that this is accomplished by a mathematical model which requires as input the knowledge of the speed at which the ventricular walls move inwardly. In this paper we report on a theoretical method of calculating this speed and show that it will become of great practical usefulness as soon as more experimental results become available.     

粗糙表面的分形特征与分形表达研究

得用触针轮廓仪和数据采集系统对磨削和车削表面的粗糙轮廓曲线进行了测量，并就粗糙表面的分形特征作了分析与讨论，同时还提出了粗糙表面的特征粗糙度概念及其定义，并将其用表面粗糙度水平的表述。     

Numerical analysis of critical jet penetration

In this paper, a computational program for two dimensional unsteady compressible, elastic-plastic flow is used to study low speed jet penetration into a steel target. Based on the computational results, the dynamic process of penetration can be distinguished into two stages, cratering and steady penetrating. This is in agreement with the jet penetration mechanism developed by Cheng Che Min in 1972^[1,2]. The consumption of the jet energy is discussed and the value of the critical jet velocity, which represents the strength resistance of the target, is estimated.     

大型电厂直冷系统风效应风洞模拟

讨论了电厂空冷凝器风效应风洞模拟准则及其实验和测量手段,提出用回流率的概念作为衡量冷凝器效率的指标．运用该指标对某电厂空冷项目实例的实验结果表明：风速、空冷平台柱高和来流风向角对冷凝器的效率有着重要影响．由此得出在空气冷却电厂的初始设计阶段,结合当地风气象资料的风洞模拟实验是非常必要的．