Formation of periodic layered pattern of tetrahydrofuran clathrate hydrates in porous media

Directional growth of tetrahydrofuran (THF) clathrate hydrates was studied in a mixture of glass beads and a stoichiometric THF-water solution. Results showed that disseminated pore space type hydrates formed in a mixture containing 50-microm beads. However, a pure hydrate layer formed pushing the beads in a mixture containing 2-microm beads (frost heaving of hydrates). As the growth proceeded, new layers were formed repeatedly, leading to the eventual formation of a periodic layered pattern. It was found that as the growth rate increased, both the thickness of a hydrate layer and the interval between the neighboring layers decreased according to power laws. The effects of the applied temperature gradient and the weight ratio of the solution and glass beads were also systematically studied. Further, the possibility of applying our model experiments to the formation of natural methane hydrates was discussed.     

The detection of tetrahydrofuran hydrate formation and saturation using magnetic resonance imaging technique

Tetrahydrofuran (THF) hydrate was formed in bulk as well as in glass beads pack with a mean diameter of 3.0 mm by controlling the temperature under ambient pressure. Images of THF hydrate formation procedure were obtained using the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique. The experiment results showed that MRI is an effective method for the detection of hydrate formation. Saturation of hydrate formed both in bulk and glass beads can be confirmed by intensity integration of MRI images.     

Tuning methane content in gas hydrates via thermodynamic modeling and molecular dynamics simulation

Storage and transportation of natural gas as gas hydrate (“gas-to-solids technology”) is a promising alternative to the established liquefied natural gas (LNG) or compressed natural gas (CNG) technologies. Gas hydrates offer a relatively high gas storage capacity and mild temperature and pressure conditions for formation. Simulations based on the van der Waals–Platteeuw model and molecular dynamics (MD) are employed in this study to relate the methane gas content/occupancy in different hydrate systems with the hydrate stability conditions including temperature, pressure, and secondary clathrate stabilizing guests. Methane is chosen as a model system for natural gas. It was found that the addition of about 1% propane suffices to increase the structure II (sII) methane hydrate stability without excessively compromising methane storage capacity in hydrate. When tetrahydrofuran (THF) is used as the stabilizing agent in sII hydrate at concentration between 1% and 3%, a reasonably high methane content in hydrate can be maintained (∼85–100, v/v) without dealing with pressures more than 5 MPa and close to room temperature.     

Modeling the dissociation of carbon dioxide and methane hydrate using the phase field theory

Hydrate that is exposed to fluid phases which are undersaturated with respect to equilibrium with the hydrate will dissociate due to gradients in chemical potential. Kinetic rates of methane hydrate dissociation towards pure water and seawater is important relative to hydrate reservoirs that are partly exposed towards the ocean floor. Corresponding results for carbon dioxide hydrate is important relative to hydrate sealing effects related to storage of carbon dioxide in cold aquifers. In this work we apply a phase field theory to the prediction of carbon dioxide hydrate and methane hydrate dissociation towards pure water at various conditions, some of which are inside and some which are outside the stability regions of the hydrates with respect to temperature and pressure. As expected from the differences in water solubility the methane hydrate dissolves significantly slower towards pure water than carbon dioxide hydrate.     

Stabilization of methane hydrate by pressurization with He or N2 gas

The behavior of methane hydrate was investigated after it was pressurized with helium or nitrogen gas in a test system by monitoring the gas compositions. The results obtained indicate that even when the partial pressure of methane gas in such a system is lower than the equilibrium pressure at a certain temperature, the dissociation rate of methane hydrate is greatly depressed by pressurization with helium or nitrogen gas. This phenomenon is only observed when the total pressure of methane and helium (or nitrogen) gas in the system is greater than the equilibrium pressure required to stabilize methane hydrate with just methane gas. The following model has been proposed to explain the observed phenomenon: (1) Gas bubbles develop at the hydrate surface during hydrate dissociation, and there is a pressure balance between the methane gas inside the gas bubbles and the external pressurizing gas (methane and helium or nitrogen), as transmitted through the water film; as a result the methane gas in the gas bubbles stabilizes the hydrate surface covered with bubbles when the total gas pressure is greater than the equilibrium pressure of the methane hydrate at that temperature; this situation persists until the gas in the bubbles becomes sufficiently dilute in methane or until the surface becomes bubble-free. (2) In case of direct contact of methane hydrate with water, the water surrounding the hydrate is supersaturated with methane released upon hydrate dissociation; consequently, methane hydrate is stabilized when the hydrostatic pressure is above the equilibrium pressure of methane hydrate at a certain temperature, again until the dissolved gas at the surface becomes sufficiently dilute in methane. In essence, the phenomenon is due to the presence of a nonequilibrium state where there is a chemical potential gradient from the solid hydrate particles to the bulk solution that exists as long as solid hydrate remains.     

Experimental studies of the formation and dissociation of methane hydrate in loess

In order to study the nature of gas hydrate in porous media, the formation and dissociation processes of methane hydrate in loess were investigated. Five cooling rates were applied to form methane hydrate. The nucleation times of methane hydrate formation at each cooling rate were measured for comparison. The experimental results show that cooling rate is a significant factor affecting the nucleation of methane hydrate and gas conversion. Under the same initial conditions, the faster the cooling rate, the shorter the nucleation time, and the lower the methane gas conversion. Five dissociating temperatures were applied to conduct the dissociation experiment of methane hydrate formed in loess. The experimental results indicated that the temperature evidently controlled the dissociation of methane hydrate in loess and the higher the dissociating temperature, the faster the dissociating rates of methane hydrate.     

Pressurized laboratory experiments show no stable carbon isotope fractionation of methane during gas hydrate dissolution and dissociation

The stable carbon isotopic ratio of methane (δ(13)C-CH(4)) recovered from marine sediments containing gas hydrate is often used to infer the gas source and associated microbial processes. This is a powerful approach because of distinct isotopic fractionation patterns associated with methane production by biogenic and thermogenic pathways and microbial oxidation. However, isotope fractionations due to physical processes, such as hydrate dissolution, have not been fully evaluated. We have conducted experiments to determine if hydrate dissolution or dissociation (two distinct physical processes) results in isotopic fractionation. In a pressure chamber, hydrate was formed from a methane gas source at 2.5 MPa and 4 °C, well within the hydrate stability field. Following formation, the methane source was removed while maintaining the hydrate at the same pressure and temperature which stimulated hydrate dissolution. Over the duration of two dissolution experiments (each ~20-30 days), water and headspace samples were periodically collected and measured for methane concentrations and δ(13)C-CH(4) while the hydrate dissolved. For both experiments, the methane concentrations in the pressure chamber water and headspace increased over time, indicating that the hydrate was dissolving, but the δ(13)C-CH(4) values showed no significant trend and remained constant, within 0.5‰. This lack of isotope change over time indicates that there is no fractionation during hydrate dissolution. We also investigated previous findings that little isotopic fractionation occurs when the gas hydrate dissociates into gas bubbles and water due to the release of pressure. Over a 2.5 MPa pressure drop, the difference in the δ(13)C-CH(4) was <0.3‰. We have therefore confirmed that there is no isotope fractionation when the gas hydrate dissociates and demonstrated that there is no fractionation when the hydrate dissolves. Therefore, measured δ(13)C-CH(4) values near gas hydrates are not affected by physical processes, and can thus be interpreted to result from either the gas source or associated microbial processes.     

Kinetics and stability of CH4-CO2 mixed gas hydrates during formation and long-term storage.

The formation of CH4-CO2 mixed gas hydrates was observed by measuring the change of vapor-phase composition using gas chromatography and Raman spectroscopy. Preferential consumption of carbon dioxide molecules was found during hydrate formation, which agreed well with thermodynamic calculations. Both Raman spectroscopic analysis and the thermodynamic calculation indicated that the kinetics of this mixed gas hydrate system was controlled by the competition of both molecules to be enclathrated into the hydrate cages. However, the methane molecules were preferentially crystallized in the early stages of hydrate formation when the initial methane concentration was much less than that of carbon dioxide. According to the Roman spectra, pure methane hydrates first formed under this condition. This unique phenomenon suggested that methane molecules play important roles in the hydrate formation process. These mixed gas hydrates were stored at atmospheric pressure and 190 K for over two months to examine the stability of the encaged gases. During storage, CO2 was preferentially released. According to our thermodynamic analysis, this CO2 release was due to the instability of CO2 in the hydrate structure under the storage conditions.     

Investigation of hydrate formation in the system H2-CH4-H2O at a pressure up to 250 MPa

Phase equilibria in the system H2-CH4-H2O are investigated by means of differential thermal analysis within hydrogen concentration range 0-70 mol % and at a pressure up to 250 MPa. All the experiments were carried out under the conditions of gas excess. With an increase in hydrogen concentration in the initial gas mixture, decomposition temperature of the formed hydrates decreased. X-ray diffraction patterns and Raman spectra of the quenched hydrate samples obtained at a pressure of 20 MPA from a gas mixture containing 40 mol % hydrogen were recorded. It turned out that the hydrate has cubic structure I under these conditions. The Raman spectra showed that hydrogen molecules are not detected in the hydrate within the sensitivity of the method, that is, almost pure methane hydrate is formed. The general view of the phase diagram of the investigated system is proposed. A thermodynamic model was proposed to explain a decrease in hydrate decomposition temperature in the system with an increase in the concentration of hydrogen in the initial mixture.     

A computer simulation of the mechanism of self-conservation of gas hydrates

Local density profiles and local component pressure profiles were obtained for two model systems containing methane hydrate and ice by molecular dynamics simulation. The ice matrix with methane hydrate clusters inserted into it was shown to be stable at normal pressure and even at a temperature higher than the temperature of methane hydrate dissociation. Calculations showed that the pressure in such a methane hydrate cluster inserted into ice was higher than in the ice phase. There were, however, no strong structure distortions because of the formation of a network of strong hydrogen bonds between the hydrate and ice phases.     

Solubility measurement of methane in aqueous solution of sodium dodecyl sulfate at ambient temperature and near hydrate conditions

Solubility data of methane in aqueous solutions of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) with different concentrations were measured at ambient temperature and near hydrate conditions. The critical micelle concentration (CMC) and the number of methane molecules dissolved in each micelle of the methane + water + SDS system were calculated and compared with those of the ethylene + water + SDS system. The results demonstrated that the micelles could be formed in the SDS concentration range where an efficient promotion effect on hydrate formation was previously reported; the micelle solubilization to methane molecules was remarkable near hydrate conditions, and the ethylene molecules could be solubilized in micelles in preference to methane molecules.     

Estimation of ultra-stability of methane hydrate at 1 atm by thermal conductivity measurement

Thermal conductivity of methane hydrate was measured in hydrate dissociation self-preservation zone by means of the transient plane source (TPS) technique developed by Gustafsson. The sample was formed from 99.9% (volume ratio) methane gas with 280 ppm sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution under 6.6 MPa and 273.15 K. The methane hydrate sample was taken out of the cell and moved into a low temperature chamber when the conversion ratio of water was more than 90%. In order to measure the thermal conductivity, the sample was compacted into two columnar parts by compact tool at 268.15 K. The measurements are carried out in the temperature ranging from 263.15 K to 271.15 K at atmospheric pressure. Additionally, the relationship between thermal conductivity and time is also investigated at 263.15 K and 268.15 K, respectively. In 24 h, thermal conductivity increases only 5.45% at 268.15 K, but thermal conductivity increases 196.29% at 263.15 K. Methane hydrates exhibit only minimal decomposition at 1 atm and the temperature ranging from 263.15 K to 271.15 K. At 1 atm and 268.15 K, the total gas that evolved after 24 h was amounted to less than 0.71% of the originally stored gas, and this ultra-stability was maintained if the test was lasted for more than two hundreds hours before terminating.     

Modulated DSC for gas hydrates analysis

Modulated DSC has been applied to the study of methane, ethane and propane hydrates at different hydrate and ice concentrations. The reversing component of the TMDSC curves, makes it possible to characterize such hydrates. Methane and ethane hydrates show the melting-decomposition peak at a temperatures higher than the ice contained in the sample, while propane hydrate melts and decomposes at lower temperature than the ice present in the sample. The hydrate peaks tend to disappear if the hydrate is stored at atmospheric pressure. Guest size and cavity occupation fix the heat of dissociation and stability of the hydrates, as confirmed by parallel tests on tetrahydrofurane hydrates.     

Activation energy of methyl radical decay in methane hydrate

The thermal stability of gamma-ray-induced methyl radicals in methane hydrate was studied using the ESR method at atmospheric pressure and 210-260 K. The methyl radical decay proceeded with the second-order reaction, and ethane molecules were generated from the dimerization process. The methyl radical decay proceeds by two different temperature-dependent processes, that is, the respective activation energies of these processes are 20.0 +/- 1.6 kJ/mol for the lower temperature region of 210-230 K and 54.8 +/- 5.7 kJ/mol for the higher temperature region of 235-260 K. The former agrees well with the enthalpy change of methane hydrate dissociation into ice and gaseous methane, while the latter agrees well with the enthalpy change into liquid water and gaseous methane. The present findings reveal that methane hydrates dissociate into liquid (supercooled) water and gaseous methane in the temperature range of 235-260 K.     

常见客体分子对笼型水合物晶格常数的影响

Natural gas hydrates are considered as ideal alternative energy resources for the future, and the relevant basic and applied research has become more attractive in recent years. The influence of guest molecules on the hydrate crystal lattice parameters is of great significances to the understanding of hydrate structural characteristics, hydrate formation/decomposition mechanisms, and phase stability behaviors. In this study, we test a series of artificial hydrate samples containing different guest molecules (e.g. methane, ethane, propane, iso-butane, carbon dioxide, tetrahydrofuran, methane + 2, 2-dimethylbutane, and methane + methyl cyclohexane) by a low-temperature powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). Results show that PXRD effectively elucidates structural characteristics of the natural gas hydrate samples, including crystal lattice parameters and structure types. The relationships between guest molecule sizes and crystal lattice parameters reveal that different guest molecules have different controlling behaviors on the hydrate types and crystal lattice constants. First, a positive correlation between the lattice constants and the van der Waals diameters of homologous hydrocarbon gases was observed in the single-guest-component hydrates. Small hydrocarbon homologous gases, such as methane and ethane, tended to form sI hydrates, whereas relatively larger molecules, such as propane and iso-butane, generated sⅡ hydrates. The hydrate crystal lattice constants increased with increasing guest molecule size. The types of hydrates composed of oxygen-containing guest molecules (such as CO₂ and THF) were also controlled by the van der Waals diameters. However, no positive correlation between the lattice constants and the van der Waals diameters of guest molecules in hydrocarbon hydrates was observed for CO₂ hydrate and THF hydrate, probably due to the special interactions between the guest oxygen atoms and hydrate "cages". Furthermore, the influences of the macromolecules and auxiliary small molecules on the lengths of the different crystal axes of the sH hydrates showed inverse trends. Compared to the methane + 2, 2-dimethylbutane hydrate sample, the length of the a-axis direction of the methane + methyl cyclohexane hydrate sample was slightly smaller, whereas the length of the c-axis direction was slightly longer. The crystal a-axis length of the sH hydrate sample formed with nitrogen molecules was slightly longer, whereas the c-axis was shorter than that of the methane + 2, 2-dimethylbutane hydrate sample at the same temperature.     

Phase transitions in mixed gas hydrates: experimental observations versus calculated data

This paper presents the phase behavior of multicomponent gas hydrate systems formed from primarily methane with small amounts of ethane and propane. Experimental conditions were typically in a pressure range between 1 and 6 MPa, and the temperature range was between 260 and 290 K. These multicomponent systems have been investigated using a variety of techniques including microscopic observations, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. These techniques, used in combination, allowed for measurement of the hydrate structure and composition, while observing the morphology of the hydrate crystals measured. The hydrate formed immediately below the three-phase line (V-L --> V-L-H) and contained crystals that were both light and dark in appearance. The light crystals, which visually were a single solid phase, showed a spectroscopic indication for the presence of occluded free gas in the hydrate. In contrast, the dark crystals were measured to be structure II (sII) without the presence of these occluded phases. Along with hydrate measurements near the decomposition line, an unexpected transformation process was visually observed at P-T-conditions in the stability field of the hydrates. Larger crystallites transformed into a foamy solid upon cooling over this transition line (between 5 and 10 K below the decomposition temperature). Below the transition line, a mixture of sI and sII was detected. This is the first time that these multicomponent systems have been investigated at these pressure and temperature conditions using both visual and spectroscopic techniques. These techniques enabled us to observe and measure the unexpected transformation process showing coexistence of different gas hydrate phases.     

Antifreezes Act as Catalysts for Methane Hydrate Formation from Ice

Contrary to the thermodynamic inhibiting effect of methanol on methane hydrate formation from aqueous phases, hydrate forms quickly at high yield by exposing frozen water–methanol mixtures with methanol concentrations ranging from 0.6–10 wt % to methane gas at pressures from 125 bars at 253 K. Formation rates are some two orders of magnitude greater than those obtained for samples without methanol and conversion of ice is essentially complete. Ammonia has a similar catalytic effect when used in concentrations of 0.3–2.7 wt %. The structure I methane hydrate formed in this manner was characterized by powder X‐ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Steps in the possible mechanism of action of methanol were studied with molecular dynamics simulations of the Ih (0001) basal plane exposed to methanol and methane gas. Simulations show that methanol from a surface aqueous layer slowly migrates into the ice lattice. Methane gas is preferentially adsorbed into the aqueous methanol surface layer. Possible consequences of the catalytic methane hydrate formation on hydrate plug formation in gas pipelines, on large scale energy‐efficient gas hydrate formation, and in planetary science are discussed.     

The specific surface area of methane hydrate formed in different conditions and manners

The specific surface area of methane hydrates, formed both in the presence and absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and processed in different manners (stirring, compacting, holding the hydrates at the formation conditions for different periods of time, cooling the hydrates for different periods of time before depressurizing them), was measured under atmospheric pressure and temperatures below ice point. It was found that the specific surface area of hydrate increased with the decreasing temperature. The methane hydrate in the presence of SDS was shown to be of bigger specific surface areas than pure methane hydrates. The experimental results further demonstrated that the manners of forming and processing hydrates affected the specific surface area of hydrate samples. Stirring or compacting made the hydrate become finer and led to a bigger specific surface area. Supported by the National natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos.20490207, 2076145, uo633003), Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University and National The National High Technology Research and Development Program of China Project.     

Molecular dynamics study of gas hydrate formation

Long-time-scale molecular dynamics simulations are presented of the spontaneous formation of methane hydrate at a methane/liquid water interface. The water film was prepared at 300 K, 30 bar and showed no significant hydrate order. On crash cooling to 250 K, 300 bar (about 20 K subcooling), the system showed a rapid growth of hydrate clusters. Contrary to popular models for hydrate nucleation, the clusters formed first as two-dimensional arrangements and only later into three-dimensional cage structures; the results are, however, consistent with the local order model proposed recently. The hydrate clusters showed clear signatures of the type II hydrate structure even though the type I structure is the thermodynamically stable form for methane hydrate; this is in accord with the results of recent diffraction experiments.     

Experimental and modeling study on decomposition kinetics of methane hydrates in different media

The decomposition kinetic behaviors of methane hydrates formed in 5 cm3 porous wet activated carbon were studied experimentally in a closed system in the temperature range of 275.8-264.4 K. The decomposition rates of methane hydrates formed from 5 cm3 of pure free water and an aqueous solution of 650 g x m(-3) sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) were also measured for comparison. The decomposition rates of methane hydrates in seven different cases were compared. The results showed that the methane hydrates dissociate more rapidly in porous activated carbon than in free systems. A mathematical model was developed for describing the decomposition kinetic behavior of methane hydrates below ice point based on an ice-shielding mechanism in which a porous ice layer was assumed to be formed during the decomposition of hydrate, and the diffusion of methane molecules through it was assumed to be one of the control steps. The parameters of the model were determined by correlating the decomposition rate data, and the activation energies were further determined with respect to three different media. The model was found to well describe the decomposition kinetic behavior of methane hydrate in different media.