High-temperature tensile and creep tester for wire

To provide test facilities for determining the tension and short-time creep properties of small-diameter tungsten wire at high temperatures, special equipment has been designed and built, employing rf (radio frequency) heating as the means of attaining temperatures up to 2600° C. This paper describes the problems which had to be solved in designing and building the equipment, and gives results to tests made after the equipment was assembled. The equipment had to meet these requirements: it had to be capable of providing tension and short-time creep data on tungsten wire in sizes from 0.001 in. diam to 0.009 in. at temperatures up to 2600° C, it had to provide an autographic stress-strain curve for the tension tests, the loading rate during tension tests had to be constant, and all of this had to be done in good vacuum. Basically the equipment consists of a loading frame which supports a calibrated beam-type load dynamometer, a synchronous electric-clock motor for applying the load, rf equipment for attaining the desired temperature, an X-Y recorder for recording stress-strain curves, and a two-color automatic optical pyrometer for measuring the temperature. The test arrangement is mounted on a vacuum base plate under a bell jar. For creep testing, the flexible beam is replaced by a rigid beam, and load is applied by means of dead weights. Creep strain is measured with a cathetometer or Optron.     

人工冻结深部软岩单轴力学性能试验及蠕变模型1）

为了了解深部软岩在冻结条件下的单轴力学性能,以东北地区的原状泥砂岩为试验对象,利用自行研制的WDT-100型人工冻土试验仪器,对其进行不同温度下的人工冻土单轴抗压强度试验和单轴蠕变试验,得到泥砂岩单轴压缩应力-应变关系曲线,各温度下试样的单轴抗压强度以及蠕变曲线.单轴压缩试验结果表明：试样在给定温度和加载速率条件下,单轴压缩应力-应变关系曲线都有较为明显的屈服点,并且都在屈服点后,强度有所提高,出现硬化现象.单轴蠕变试验结果表明：单轴压缩蠕变曲线有非线性特征,单轴压缩蠕变的等时应力-应变曲线向应变轴靠拢;单轴压缩时蠕变模量随时间的增长而降低.最后采用遗传算法优化模型参数,得出泥砂岩蠕变经验方程.与试验结果对比,发现拟合情况较好.     

高温结构蠕变裂尖拘束效应

如何对蠕变裂纹扩展寿命进行准确预测和评价是高温结构完整性评定、寿命设计和运行维护中需要解决的核心问题.基于宏观单参数C?的蠕变断裂行为的评价方法,未有效纳入裂尖拘束效应的影响,因而其评价结果过于保守或非保守.目前国内外还未建立起有效纳入裂尖拘束效应的高温结构蠕变寿命评价的理论体系和技术方法,还没有纳入蠕变拘束效应的高温结构完整性评定规范.本文综述了作者近年来在高温蠕变断裂拘束效应方面的研究工作.主要包括:裂尖拘束对材料蠕变裂纹扩展行为的影响及机理;蠕变裂尖场和拘束参数R的定义和影响因素;载荷无关的蠕变拘束参数R? 的提出及其应用基础;承压管道表面裂纹的拘束参数R? 解及纳入裂尖拘束的蠕变寿命评价方法;试样与管道轴向裂纹蠕变裂尖拘束的关联;基于裂尖等效蠕变应变的面内与面外蠕变裂尖拘束的统一表征参数Ac的研究;材料拘束相关的蠕变裂纹扩展速率的建立;宽范围C? 区蠕变裂纹扩展速率及其拘束效应的数值预测;材料拘束对焊接接头蠕变裂纹扩展行为的影响及机理等.这些研究为建立纳入裂尖拘束效应的高温部件的蠕变裂纹扩展寿命评价方法奠定了理论和技术基础.论文对后续拟开展的工作也进行了展望.     

Creep crack-tip constraint effect in high temperature structures

如何对蠕变裂纹扩展寿命进行准确预测和评价是高温结构完整性评定、寿命设计和运行维护中需要解决的核心问题.基于宏观单参数C^*的蠕变断裂行为的评价方法,未有效纳入裂尖拘束效应的影响,因而其评价结果过于保守或非保守.目前国内外还未建立起有效纳入裂尖拘束效应的高温结构蠕变寿命评价的理论体系和技术方法,还没有纳入蠕变拘束效应的高温结构完整性评定规范.本文综述了作者近年来在高温蠕变断裂拘束效应方面的研究工作.主要包括：裂尖拘束对材料蠕变裂纹扩展行为的影响及机理;蠕变裂尖场和拘束参数R的定义和影响因素;载荷无关的蠕变拘束参数R^*的提出及其应用基础;承压管道表面裂纹的拘束参数R^*解及纳入裂尖拘束的蠕变寿命评价方法;试样与管道轴向裂纹蠕变裂尖拘束的关联;基于裂尖等效蠕变应变的面内与面外蠕变裂尖拘束的统一表征参数A_c的研究;材料拘束相关的蠕变裂纹扩展速率的建立;宽范围C^*区蠕变裂纹扩展速率及其拘束效应的数值预测;材料拘束对焊接接头蠕变裂纹扩展行为的影响及机理等.这些研究为建立纳入裂尖拘束效应的高温部件的蠕变裂纹扩展寿命评价方法奠定了理论和技术基础.论文对后续拟开展的工作也进行了展望.     

Predictions of nonlinear viscoelastic behavior using a hybrid approach

An approach for nonlinear viscoelastic characterization is presented which uses the combined measurements from creep and dynamic mechanical tests. Although the methodology should extend to several materials and geometries, this research concentrates on thin film polymers used in the manufacture of high altitude scientific balloons. Typically, the constitutive behavior of these materials is characterized through the use of linear viscoelastic techniques. Although this linear approach provides an accurate model for small strains or loads, these materials have been shown to be highly stress dependent and, consequently, it is necessary to identify this nonlinear behavior. Traditional creep measurements require extensive laboratory test times, yet the results obtained from dynamic mechanical analysis provide the capability to predict long term material performance without a lengthy experimentation program. However, dynamic mechanical methods are currently limited to linear response; thus, an approach is presented in which the stress-dependent behavior is derived from short-term creep measurements in a manner analogous to time-temperature superposition. Predictions of material response using linear and nonlinear approaches are compared with experimental results obtained from traditional long-term creep tests. Although linear pre-dictions deteriorate for large stresses, excellent agreement is shown for the nonlinear model.     

Determination of Creep Compliance of Asphalt Concrete from Notched Semi-Circular Bend (SCB) Test

The feasibility of determining the creep compliance of asphalt concrete from a notched Semi-Circular Bend (SCB) test specimen was investigated. The objective of this study was to propose a combined test methodology that can provide both viscoelastic and fracture properties of asphalt concrete mixtures tested at low temperatures. Finite element (FE) analyses were performed to understand the stress state in the SCB, and an optimal load range producing appreciable displacement measurements while preserving the linear viscoelastic conditions was identified. Expressions that relate displacement measurements, from particular regions of the SCB specimen, to creep function were derived. The validity of the proposed SCB creep method was tested both by numerical simulations and experimental testing. Good agreement was found between the creep function obtained from SCB and those obtained from the Three-Point Bending Beam (3PBB) and the Indirect Tensile (IDT) creep test.     

Prediction of creep rupture in 2.25Cr–1Mo notched bars

This paper re-examines the creep life methodology based on the continuum damage mechanics (CDM) of the Kachanov and Rabotnov theory. Uniaxial creep and multiaxial creep rupture formulations are presented taking into account the primary creep effect. The scalar damage parameter is computed up to time-to-rupture as a function of time and stress. The methodology implemented is based on the uniaxial time-to-rupture obtained experimentally. The times-to-rupture for bars with different notches are calculated. It is demonstrated that the use of the damage parameter is vital to indicate the critical damage location where failure occurs. Results are compared to those obtained experimentally. It is shown that the primary creep inclusion has a significant effect on the damage distribution zone.     

A study of the generation and creep relaxation of triaxial residual stresses in stainless steel

This paper presents results from a numerical and experimental research programme motivated by the need to predict creep damage generated by multi-axial states of stress in austenitic stainless steels. It has been hypothesized that highly triaxial residual stress fields may be sufficient to promote creep damage in thermally aged components, even in the absence of in-service loads. Two prerequisites to test this hypothesis are the provision of test specimens containing a highly triaxial residual stress field and an accurate knowledge of how this residual stress field relaxes due to creep. Creep damage predictions may then be made for these specimens and compared to damage observed in experiments. This paper provides solutions to both of these prerequisites. Cylindrical and spherical test specimens made from type 316H stainless steel are heated to 850 °C and then quenched in water. Finite element predictions of the residual stress state, validated by extensive neutron diffraction measurements, are presented which confirm the high level of triaxiality present in the specimens. The specimens are then thermally aged at 550 °C and numerical predictions of the residual stress relaxation are given, again validated by extensive neutron diffraction measurements. The results confirm the validity of the creep relaxation models employed. In addition, the results show the influence of specimen size and permit comparisons to be made between three different types of neutron diffractometers.     

Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Initial Plasticity in P91 Steel Small Punch Creep Samples

To date, the complex behaviour of small punch creep test (SPCT) specimens has not been completely understood, making the test hard to numerically model and the data difficult to interpret. This paper presents a novel numerical model able to generate results that match the experimental findings. For the first time, pre-strained uniaxial creep test data of a P91 steel at 600 ^°C have been implemented in a conveniently modified Liu and Murakami creep damage model in order to simulate the effects of the initial localised plasticity on the subsequent creep response of a small punch creep test specimen. Finite element (FE) results, in terms of creep displacement rate and time to failure, obtained by the modified Liu and Murakami model are in good agreement with experimental small punch creep test data. The rupture times obtained by the FE calculations which make use of the non-modified creep damage model are one order of magnitude shorter than those obtained by using the modified constitutive model. Although further investigation is needed, this novel approach has confirmed that the effects of initial localised plasticity, taking place in the early stages of small punch creep test, cannot be neglected. The new results, obtained by using the modified constitutive model, show a significant improvement with respect to those obtained by a ’state of the art’ creep damage constitutive model (the Liu and Murakami constitutive model) both in terms of minimum load-line displacement rate and time to rupture. The new modelling method will potentially lead to improved capability for SPCT data interpretation.     

SUS304材料的小冲孔蠕变试验研究

小冲孔蠕变试验技术是一种采用微小试样、近乎无损地评定材料高温力学性能的新方法,本文应用小冲孔蠕变试验技术评定SUS304材料的高温力学性能。在不同温度下,对SUS304奥氏体不锈钢进行载荷范围为443N～513N的小冲孔蠕变试验,得到材料在不同试验条件下的蠕变曲线,通过中断试样的扫描电镜观察分析了试样的变形过程,讨论了影响小冲孔蠕变试验的主要因素。试验结果表明,从小冲孔实验获得的蠕变曲线与传统单轴拉伸蠕变实验的蠕变曲线具有一致性,都具有三个明显的蠕变阶段,利用小冲孔蠕变试验技术测试材料的高温性能是可行的。试验载荷越大,试样瞬时变形挠度越大,蠕变第二阶段速率越快,断裂时间越短。载荷、温度、试样厚度、环境是小冲孔试验的主要影响因素,对试验结果影响很大。     

Characterization of photoviscoelastic materials by a nonlinear constitutive equation

On the basis of a phenomenological theory which is guided by the results on the macroscopic material behavior, a nonlinear constitutive equation is derived to characterize the photoviscoelastic behavior of homogeneous, isotropic, and nonaging amorphous plastics, including large deformations. It is shown how to determine four memory functions by running creep tests in pure tension and simple shear. The testing equipment and the methods of test evaluation are explained. Results are reported for some typical materials. They show how to simplify the basic equation for applications in the analysis of plane states of stress in polymeric structures under quasistatic isothermal loading conditions.     

持荷混凝土构件耐久性试验加载装置应用技术

针对混凝土构件耐久性试验环境的腐蚀性和多变性、试验设备容量的限制、混凝土的徐变及加载杆件的松弛等影响,对持荷试件加载装置进行了设计与研究。通过自平衡加载装置对紧固件施加扭矩来控制持荷试件的应力水平,并实时监测不同材质及环境下的扭矩系数、混凝土徐变和紧固件的应力松弛,以此获得扭矩的衰减规律,为试件应力补偿提供理论依据。采用两套加载装置对8根(套)试件进行了测试,试验结果表明,自平衡加载装置适用性强、加载及其补偿简便且能够满足试验要求,持荷试件应力损失在六周后趋于稳定。该装置及其应用技术可用于荷载与环境共同作用下混凝土构件的耐久性试验。     

压缩蠕变力学试验的数值模拟研究

由于蠕变试验费时长、耗资大,在实际操作中比较困难,长期以来制约着蠕变试验的发展。本文利用岩土分析软件FLAC3D建立试验模型,对室内蠕变试验进行模拟研究。采用同实际试验相同的试验状态、加载设计和时间设置,得到了同实际情况相似的蠕变曲线并进行了蠕变变形分析,进而延伸到常规三轴压缩的试验状态。     

家兔肌腱的蠕变变形行为的实验研究

研究了家兔肌腱的蠕变规律，测定了稳定蠕变速率等力学参量，通过对试验结果的分析，建立了肌腱的蠕变本构关系，结果表明，蠕变应变与瞬时应力和时间有关，在一定的瞬时应力作用下，稳定蠕变速率近似为常数，稳定蠕变速率与瞬时应力近似成指数关系。     

改进的非定常Bingham岩石蠕变模型及参数辨识

传统Bingham模型适用于描述蠕变的前两个阶段,为了更加准确地描述岩体蠕变的三个阶段,本文提出了一种改进的非定常Bingham蠕变模型,并推导出其蠕变本构方程．该模型在传统Bingham模型的基础上串联一个非定常黏壶元件,并考虑岩体弹性模量及原有黏壶元件蠕变参数的非定常化．基于该模型对泥岩的蠕变试验曲线进行拟合及参数辨识,结果表明该模型具有较高的拟合精度,可以准确地描述泥岩蠕变的三个阶段,并实现了在数值软件中的应用,为实际工程提供了一种简单有效的蠕变本构模型．     

An experimental study of uniaxial creep,cyclic creep and relaxation of aisi type 304 stainless steel at room temperature

Following previous work (Krempl, 1979), a servocontrolled testing machine and strain measurement at the gage length were used to study the uniaxial rate(time)-dependent behavior of AISI Type 304 stainless steel at room temperature. The test results show that the creep strain accumulated in a given period of time depends strongly on the stress-rate preceding the creep test. In constant stress-rate zero-to-tension loading the creep strain accumulated in a fixed time-period at a given stress level is always higher during loading than during unloading. Continued cycling causes an exhaustion of creep ratchetting which depends on the stress-rate. Periods of creep and relaxation introduced during completely reversed plastic cycling show that the curved portions of the hysteresis loop exhibit most of the inelasticity. In the straight portions, creep and relaxation are small and there exists a region commencing after unloading where the behavior is similar to that at the origin for virgin materials. This region does not extend to zero stress.The results are at variance with creep theory and with viscoplasticity theories which assume that the yield surface expands with the stress. They support the theory of viscoplasticity based on total strain and overstress.     

Multiaxial creep and cyclic plasticity in nickel-base superalloy C263

Physically-based constitutive equations for uniaxial creep deformation in nickel alloy C263 [Acta Mater. 50 (2002) 2917] have been generalised for multiaxial stress states using conventional von Mises type assumptions. A range of biaxial creep tests have been carried out on nickel alloy C263 in order to investigate the stress state sensitivity of creep damage evolution. The sensitivity has been quantified in C263 and embodied within the creep constitutive equations for this material. The equations have been implemented into finite element code. The resulting computed creep behaviour for a range of stress state compares well with experimental results. Creep tests have been carried out on double notched bar specimens over a range of nominal stress. The effect of the notches is to introduce multiaxial stress states local to the notches which influences creep damage evolution. Finite element models of the double notch bar specimens have been developed and used to test the ability of the model to predict correctly, or otherwise, the creep rupture lifetimes of components in which multiaxial stress states exist. Reasonable comparisons with experimental results are achieved. The γ^′ solvus temperature of C263 is about 925 °C, so that thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) loading in which the temperature exceeds the solvus leads to the dissolution of the γ^′ precipitate, and a resulting solution treated material. The cyclic plasticity and creep behaviour of the solution treated material is quite different to that of the material with standard heat treatment. A time-independent cyclic plasticity model with kinematic and isotropic hardening has been developed for solution treated and standard heat treated nickel-base superalloy C263. It has been combined with the physically-based creep model to provide constitutive equations for TMF in C263 over the temperature range 20–950 °C, capable of predicting deformation and life in creep cavitation-dominated TMF failure.     

一种新的岩石非线性损伤蠕变模型

为描述岩石加速蠕变阶段的非线性变形规律,在广义开尔文体基础上串联一个村山体,基于Kachanov损伤率理论,建立了损伤变量D与蠕变时间的函数关系,并根据Lemaitre应变等效原理将村山体中的无损模型参数p用有效模型参数p(1-D)代替,以此来表征岩石加速蠕变阶段的非线性,建立了一种新的非线性损伤蠕变模型;根据广义塑性力学理论给出了该模型的三维蠕变方程;采用Levenberg-Marquardt非线性优化最小二乘法对红砂岩和绿片岩常规三轴压缩蠕变试验数据进行拟合,反演得到这两种岩石的蠕变模型参数。拟合结果表明:拟合曲线与试验曲线的拟合相关系数R2分别为0.999和0.992,说明该蠕变模型能较好地反映这两种岩石各阶段的蠕变曲线特征。     

PBX材料蠕变性能的云纹干涉法实验研究

本文利用云纹干涉法对PBX材料蠕变行为进行了研究。实验中采用圆盘试件进行压缩实验。利用圆盘对径受压实验间接拉伸的特点,测量了PBX材料的拉伸蠕变及蠕变恢复曲线,同时也得到了圆盘部分区域压缩蠕变及蠕变恢复曲线。实验中,观察到蠕变的阶段上升现象,这一现象不同于一般的纯的高聚物的蠕变变形。并针对这一蠕变现象利用破坏力学理论进行了初步分析。文中的实验现象及实验数据将为PBX材料蠕变破坏变形的进一步的理论分析提供科学依据。