Swelling characteristics and application of gamma-radiation on irradiated SBR-carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) blends

Blends of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) with varying loading degree from 60 wt% to 100 wt% of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) have been prepared. Gamma radiation vulcanization of prepared blends was carried out with doses varying between 50 kGy and 250 kGy. Mechanical properties, namely, tensile strength (Ts), elongation at break (E_b) and hardness were followed up as a function of loading degree of CMC and gamma irradiation dose. Moreover, physical properties, specifically swelling number (SN) and gel fraction % (GF%) were undertaken. Results obtained showed an improvement in mechanical as well as in physical properties with increasing either CMC content or dose of irradiation. Thermal properties namely thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) was carried out.     

Radiation-induced degradation of butyl rubber vulcanized by three different crosslinking systems

Butyl rubber (IIR) is an isobutylene/isoprene copolymer and is provided with good properties including low permeability to gases, good thermal stability and high resistance to oxygen and ozone action, among others. It is well known that the major effect of ionizing radiations on butyl rubber is chain scission accompanied with a significant reduction in molar mass. This work aimed to study the effects of gamma radiation on the properties of butyl rubbers vulcanized by three different curing systems, such as, the ones based on sulfur, sulfur donor and phenolic resin to identify which curing system is the most stable under irradiation. The butyl rubber vulcanized by three different systems was gamma irradiated with doses of 25 kGy, 50 kGy, 100 kGy, 150 kGy and 200 kGy. Irradiated and non-irradiated samples were characterized by the following techniques: tensile, elongation and hardness. It was observed that doses higher than 150 kGy practically destroy the assessed properties for all butyl compounds, irrespective of the vulcanization system used; however compounds cured with phenolic resin showed a decrease in properties proportional to the dose.     

Effect of electron beam irradiation on dynamic mechanical,thermal and morphological properties of LLDPE and PDMS rubber blends

The effect of electron beam irradiation on the blends of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) and poly dimethyl siloxane rubber (PDMS) prepared over a wide range of compositions starting from 70:30 to 30:70 (LLDPE: PDMS) by varying the radiation doses from 50 to 300 kGy has been studied. The dynamic modulii and dielectric strength of the blends increase on irradiation at 100 kGy as compared to that for the unirradiated blends. Degree of crystallinity and melting behaviour remain unchanged upon irradiation upto a dose of 100 kGy, beyond which it decreases. Thermal stability increases with increase in the proportion of PDMS rubber in the blend as well as on irradiation at 100 kGy. The phase morphology of the blends examined under the SEM exhibit two phase morphology before electron beam irradiation, whereas single phase morphology is observed after electron beam irradiation due to intra- as well as inter-molecular crosslinking leading to a miscible system.     

Degradation behavior of poly (l-lactide-co-glycolide) films through gamma-ray irradiation

Gamma-ray irradiation is a very useful tool to improve the physicochemical properties of various biodegradable polymers without the use of a heating and crosslinking agent. The purpose of this study was to investigate the degradation behavior of poly (l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) depending on the applied gamma-ray irradiation doses. PLGA films prepared through a solvent casting method were irradiated with gamma radiation at various irradiation doses. The irradiation was performed using 60Co gamma-ray doses of 25–500 kGy at a dose rate of 10 kGy/h.The degradation of irradiated films was observed through the main chain scission. Exposure to gamma radiation dropped the average molecular weight (M_n and M_w), and weakened the mechanical strength. Thermograms of irradiated film show various changes of thermal properties in accordance with gamma-ray irradiation doses. Gamma-ray irradiation changes the morphology of the surface, and improves the wettability. In conclusion, gamma-ray irradiation will be a useful tool to control the rate of hydrolytic degradation of these PLGA films.     

Effects of sensitizer length on radiation crosslinked shape–memory polymers

Shape–memory polymers (SMPs) are smart materials that can be designed to retain a metastable state and upon activation, recover a preprogrammed shape. In this study, poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA) is blended with poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) of various molecular weights in various concentrations and subsequently exposed to ionizing radiation. PEGDA sensitizes the radiation crosslinking of PMA, lowering the minimum absorbed dose for gelation and increasing the rubbery modulus, after crosslinking. Minimum dose for gelation, as determined by the Charlesby–Pinner equation, decreases from 25.57 kGy for unblended PMA to 2.06 kGy for PMA blended with 10.00 mole% PEGDA. Moreover, increase in the blend concentration of PEGDA increases the crosslinking density of the resulting networks. Sensitizer length, namely M_n of PEGDA, also affects crosslinking and final mechanical properties. Increase in the length of the PEGDA molecule at a constant molar ratio increases the efficacy of the molecule as a radiation sensitizer as determined by the increase in gel fraction and rubbery modulus across doses. However, at a constant weight ratio of PEGDA to PMA, shorter PEGDA chains sensitize more crosslinking because they have more reactive ends per weight fraction. Sensitized samples of PMA with PEGDA were tested for shape–memory properties and showed shape fixity of greater than 99%. Samples had a glass transition temperature near 28 °C and recovered between 97% and 99% of the induced strain when strained to 50%.     

Effect of gamma radiation on chlorobutyl rubber vulcanized by three different crosslinking systems

The development of halogenated butyl rubber (chlorobutyl) in the 1950s and 1960s greatly extended the usefulness of butyl. Their properties allowed the development of more durable tubeless tires with the air retaining innerliner, chemically bonded to the body of the tire. Tire innerliners are by far the largest application for halobutyl. When polymers are subjected to high energy radiation, a number of chemical reactions may occur following the initial ionization and excitation events. These reactions lead to changes in the molecular weight of the polymer through scission (S) and crosslinking (X) of the molecules and affect the physical and mechanical properties. In the halobutyl rubbers the chain scission may predominate. This work aims to show effects of gamma radiation in properties of chlorobutyl rubbers vulcanized with sulfur, sulfur donor and phenolic resin. The butyl rubber has been already studied by us previously. The samples were characterized before and after irradiation. Gamma radiation doses used were: 25 kGy, 50 kGy, 100 kGy, 150 kGy and 200 kGy, in order to identify which cure system is the most stable under irradiation. In this study we observed that the properties of all samples were affected irrespective of the vulcanization system.     

Thermal,tensile and rheological properties of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) irradiated by gamma-ray in different atmospheres

The aim of this paper is to investigate structural changes of linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) modified by ionizing radiation (gamma rays) in different atmospheres. The gamma radiation process for modification of commercial polymers is a widely applied technique to promote new physical–chemical and mechanical properties. Gamma irradiation originates free radicals which can induce chain scission or recombination, providing its annihilation, branching or crosslinking. This polymer was irradiated with gamma source of ⁶⁰Co at doses of 5, 10, 20, 50 or 100 kGy at a dose rate of 5 kGy/h. The changes in molecular structure of LLDPE, after gamma irradiations were evaluated using thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) and tensile machine and oscillatory rheology. The results showed the variations of the properties depending on the dose at each atmosphere.     

Radiation-induced crosslinking of polyacrylonitrile fibers and the subsequent regulative effect on the preoxidation process

To investigate the radiation effect on polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers as well as on the preoxidation process, PAN fibers were irradiated by γ-rays at room temperature at 50–500 kGy in vacuum and then were thermally oxidized in air. Gel fraction determination indicated that γ irradiation led to the predominant crosslinking of PAN fibers, with G values (the number of event per 100 eV absorbed) of G(X)=0.28 and G(S)=0.16 for chain crosslinking and scission, respectively. It was found that irradiation caused a slight change in the crystal structure and tensile strength at low dose. Radiation led to a reduction of the onset temperature of cyclization reaction and moderated the exothermic behavior. The density of the PAN fibers after thermal oxidation was used to evaluate the preoxidation extent. It was proven that radiation could significantly accelerate the preoxidation process and consequently shortened the preoxidation time. Radiation crosslinking may have potential application in the production of PAN-based carbon fibers.     

Degradation of poly(carbonate urethane) by gamma irradiation

Poly(carbonate urethane) (PCU), is a valuable commercial engineering polymer. In order to understand the possible use of PCU in radioactive waste management as a solidifying agent or as a disposal container, radiation stability of the PCU is studied by Co-60 gamma irradiations at two different dose rates of 1540 and 82.8 Gy/h. The total dose of irradiation was up to 6.24 MGy. Degradation nature was tested by studying the changes in mechanical and thermal properties with rate and total dose of irradiation. Ultimate tensile strength and toughness first increased and then decreased with the irradiation dose. Half value dose (HVD) for elongation was 4010 kGy and for tensile strength 6010 kGy at the dose rate of 1540 Gy/h. The non-irradiated PCU transparent color changed to yellow and then brown with increased irradiation dose. The FTIR spectral analysis showed a random scission of polymer with irradiation. From the experimental observation, it was shown that PCU can be used for embedding radioactive waste for about 300 years.     

Effect of electron beam irradiation on the structural properties of poly(vinyl alcohol) formulations with triphenyl tetrazolium chloride dye (TTC)

Films of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) composites with triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) dye were prepared and exposed to various radiation doses delivered by accelerated electrons. The results showed that at a low dose of 50 kGy, the colour difference (ΔE^*) of PVA/TTC films was increased by ∼10 times of the initial value. However, the change in colour differences did not go systematically with increasing the TTC content, in which the composite with 1.5 wt% displayed higher value than that with 3.5 wt%. The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed that the presence of the TTC dye caused a depression in the melting point (T_m) and heat of fusion (ΔH_f) of the PVA bulk polymer. However, the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the presence of the TTC dye improved the thermal stability of PVA. Also, the tensile strength at break of PVA/TTC composites was improved after electron beam irradiation.     

Study of natural rubber crosslinked in the state of uniaxial deformation

A natural rubber (NR) film with the thickness of about 1 mm was prepared by removing the liquid phase from NR latex. Two types of NR films crosslinked by γ-irradiation were investigated: (i) samples irradiated in the relaxed state and (ii) samples irradiated in the state of uniaxial deformation. The total irradiation dose varied from 0 kGy (for nonirradiated NR) to 400 kGy and the degree of deformation, defined as λ=l/l₀ (l₀ and l being the lengths of relaxed and uniaxially deformed sample, respectively), was chosen to be λ=1.0 (relaxed state), λ=1.5 and λ=2.0. The amount of sol and gel phase of NR was determined by extracting the sol component in toluene. A significant decrease in the amount of the sol component (from 14.2% to 33.5%, depending on irradiation dose) was observed by increasing the irradiation dose. It has been shown that the application of deformation during the crosslinking leads to the lower crosslink density. Such an effect can be attributed to the loss of the gel component induced mechanically. The electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra of spin probe diffusing in the NR matrix crosslinked under deformation are influenced by both, the local dynamics of the chain segments and their spacious orientation.     

Effect of electron beam radiation dose on the foam formation in pre-ceramic polymer

Methylsilicone resin as a polymer precursor for a SiOC ceramic material was cured and foamed by electron beam (EB) irradiation in air prior to the pyrolysis under an inert atmosphere. Methylsilicone foams were obtained without additional foaming agent when exposed to accelerated electrons with radiation doses up to 9 MGy and dose rate of 2.8 kGy/s. During irradiation the polymer was melted and simultaneously gaseous products were formed by the methyl group oxidation and by the poly-condensation crosslinking reactions. The formed gases could not escape from the molten polymer and began to aggregate into bubbles. The effect of the radiation dose on the polymer foam molecular structure, the gel fraction and the ceramic yield was analyzed. The results indicate that the maximum amount of crosslinking in methylsilicone, when EB radiation is used, occurred between 1.0 and 2.0 MGy radiation dose. Methylsilicone foams were pyrolysed in N₂ atmosphere at temperatures of 1200 and 1500 °C, resulting in amorphous SiOC and partially crystalline ceramic foams, respectively. A porosity of ~84% was achieved in the pyrolyzed foams, with cell size ranging from 30 to 300 μm and density of about 0.31 g cm^?3.     

Enhancement of plant growth stimulation activity of irradiated alginate by fractionation

Alginate with the weight-average molecular weight (M_w) approximately 900 kDa and ratio of M (mannuronate)/G (guluronate) about 1.3 was irradiated by gamma Co-60 in aqueous solution at doses up to 200 kGy. The irradiation dose was shown to be a function for reducing M_w and molecular weight distribution of irradiated alginates. The distribution of oligomer fractions in irradiated products was also investigated by separation using ultrafiltration membranes. The irradiated alginate with M_w approximately 14.2 kDa was found to have a positive influence for growing of barley and soybean. The irradiated oligoalginate fraction with M_w ranging from 1 to 3 kDa displayed the strongest effect on the growth and development of the mentioned plants at low concentration (20 ppm). It is suggested that oligoalginate with M_w in the range 1–3 kDa is a trigger for the growth and development of plants.     

Electron beam crosslinking of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate)/clay nanocomposites

Effect of electron beam irradiation on the thermal and mechanical properties of poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA)/clay nanocomposites prepared by melt blending method has been investigated. The hot set test results show that elongation at high temperature under static load decreased with the increase of irradiation dose. The tensile modulus increased continuously with increasing dose. While the tensile strength increased up to 100 kGy, it decreased with further increase in dose. The elongation at break decreased continuously with increasing dose. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that thermal stability of the EVA/clay nanocomposites improved with increasing dose. The improvement in the mechanical and thermal properties is attributed to the formation of radiation-induced crosslinking as evidenced by the gel content results.     

Effect of gamma radiation on the mechanical and barrier properties of HEMA grafted chitosan-based films

Chitosan films were prepared by dissolving 1% (w/v) chitosan powder in 2% (w/v) aqueous acetic acid solution. Chitosan films were prepared by solution casting. The values of puncture strength (PS), viscoelasticity coefficient and water vapor permeability (WVP) of the films were found to be 565 N/mm, 35%, and 3.30 g mm/m² day kPa, respectively. Chitosan solution was exposed to gamma irradiation (0.1–5 kGy) and it was revealed that PS values were reduced significantly (p≤0.05) after 1 kGy dose and it was not possible to form films after 5 kGy. Monomer, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) solution (0.1–1%, w/v) was incorporated into the chitosan solution and the formulation was exposed to gamma irradiation (0.3 kGy). A 0.1% (w/v) HEMA concentration at 0.3 kGy dose was found optimal-based on PS values for chitosan grafting. Then radiation dose (0.1–5 kGy) was optimized for HEMA grafting. The highest PS values (672 N/mm) were found at 0.7 kGy. The WVP of the grafted films improved significantly (p≤0.05) with the rise of radiation dose.     

The effect of 60Co (γ-ray) irradiation on the electrical characteristics of Au/SnO2/n-Si (MIS) structures

The effect of ⁶⁰Co (γ-ray) irradiation on the electrical properties of Au/SnO₂/n-Si (MIS) structures has been investigated using the capacitance–voltage (C–V) and conductance–voltage (G/ω−V) measurements in the frequency range 1 kHz to 1 MHz at room temperature. The MIS structures were exposed to γ-rays at a dose rate of 2.12 kGy/h in water and the range of total dose was 0–500 kGy. It was found that the C–V and G/ω−V curves were strongly influenced with both frequency and the presence of the dominant radiation-induced defects, and the series resistance was increased with increasing dose. Also, the radiation-induced threshold voltage shift (ΔV_T) strongly depended on radiation dose and frequency, and the density of interface states N_ss by Hill–Coleman method decreases with increasing radiation dose.     

Electron beam irradiation of fluoropolymers containing polyethers

A highly fluorinated monomer, 1,3-bis(1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-pentafluorophenyl methoxy-2-propyl)benzene (12F-FBE) was polymerized with some diphenols by polycondensation and then was electron beam irradiated between 100 and 1000 kGy to determine degradation radiochemistry yield (G_s) by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The samples were characterized after irradiation by DSC, FTIR, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The fluoropolymers show apparent degradation in mechanical properties at 300 kGy, except 12F-FBE polymerized with biphenol and bisphenol A, when they did not show any apparent physical change up to 300 kGy; and continue to be flexible and transparent, with a radiochemical yield scission (G_s) of 0.75, 0.53, 0.88, and 0.38 for 12F-FBE/SDL aliphatic, 12F-FBE/biphenol, 12F-FBE/bisphenol A, and 12F-FBE/bisphenol O, respectively. The number average molecular weights for three of the polymers decrease upon 1000 kGy irradiation to 10% of their original values; however, the polymer from bisphenol A is much more stable and its M_n decreases to only 24% of original.     

Magnesium lactate mixed with EVA polymer/paraffin as an EPR dosimeter for radiation processing application

The dosimetric characteristics of γ-radiation-induced defects in magnesium lactate (ML) rods (3.5 mm×10 mm) formulated by mixing ML with molten mixtures of paraffin wax and EVA copolymer have been investigated using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The EPR spectrum of irradiated ML rods was characterized by a quartet signal with the spectroscopic splitting g-factor of 2.0048±0.0003 at 0.4 mT. The useful dose range of the rod dosimeter was 100 Gy to 80 kGy. The mass attenuation coefficient, μ/ρ, and the mass energy-absorption coefficient, μ_en/ρ, versus energy in the range of 10 keV to 20 MeV indicate that the prepared ML dosimeter is typically adipose tissue equivalent overall this energy range. The overall combined uncertainties (at 2σ) associated with routine dose monitoring in the dose range of 0.1–10 kGy and 10–80 kGy were found to be 6.14% and 6.36%, respectively.     

Effect of combined radiation and NaOCl/ultrasonication on reduction of Bacillus cereus spores in rice

In this study, ionizing radiation in combination with sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and ultrasonication (US) was examined for its effectiveness in reducing Bacillus cereus F4810/72 spores in raw rice. We also evaluated whether the combined processing would produce synergistic effects compared to the individual treatments. The concentration of the initial B. cereus spore was approximately 2.9 log₁₀ CFU/g. After 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 kGy irradiation treatment, spore populations were reduced by 1.3, 1.4 and 1.6 log₁₀ CFU/g, respectively. In the case of combined gamma irradiation and NaOCl/US treatment, the reduction was higher than those of each single treatment. The combined treatment of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 kGy and NaOCl (600–1000 ppm)/US (5–20 min) completely destroyed the spores in raw rice while the spores were not completely destroyed in the control treatment (0 kGy). These results indicated that it could be more effective to combine NaOCl with low dose gamma irradiation than high dose (concentration) of individual disinfection treatment to destroy B. cereus spores in food such as raw rice.     

Effect of low-dose γ-irradiation on the shelf life and quality characteristics of minimally processed potato cubes under modified atmosphere packaging

The processing conditions involving γ-irradiation for minimally processed potato cubes were optimized by response surface methodology. The effect of γ-irradiation dose (0–1.5 kGy), citric acid concentration (0–1.0%), KMS concentration (0–1.0%) and their complex interaction on L, a, b value, hardness and total sugar content were studied using a central composite rotatable design of experiments. The results showed that at the optimum conditions (γ-irradiation dose 1.0 kGy; citric acid concentration 0.33% and KMS concentration 0.55%) the L-value was ⩾48.50%, a-value ⩽0.95, b-value ⩽7.5, hardness ⩾100 N, sucrose concentration ⩽0.19% and sensory score ⩾6.0 at the end of the storage period of 4 weeks.