Characteristics of superficially-porous silica particles for fast HPLC: some performance comparisons with sub-2-microm particles

Columns of 2.7-microm fused-core (superficially porous) Type B silica particles allow very fast separations of small molecules at pressures available in most high-performance liquid chromatography instruments. These highly-purified particles with 1.7-microm solid silica cores and 0.5-microm-thick shells of 9 nm pores exhibit efficiencies that rival those of totally porous sub-2-microm particles but at one-half to one-third of the column back pressure. This presentation describes other operating features of fused-core particle columns, including sample loading characteristics and packed bed stability. The superior mass transfer (kinetic) properties of the fused-core particles result in much-improved separation efficiency at higher mobile phase velocities, especially for > 600 molecular weight solutes.     

Mass transport in sub-2-microm high-performance liquid chromatography

Ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography enables increased separation speed and efficiency. The quantitative improvement in efficiency is lower than that predicted by theory, and the reasons are not known. In this work, slow mass transport due to analyte desorption from the stationary phase is discussed as a possible contribution to the lower than expected efficiency. Data in the literature for the reversed phase elution of acetophenone, for which particle size was varied with constant particle composition and mobile phase, were used to test this possibility. The mass transport terms for the three particles sizes (1.7, 3.5 and 5.0 microm) fit well to a model that includes desorption from the stationary phase as a contribution, and this analysis yields an apparent desorption time constant of 2.0(+/-0.2)ms for acetophenone in a reversed-phase separation. The results indicate that it is reasonable to consider slow desorption as a possible contribution to the reduced plate height for sub-2-microm particles.     

Separation of PCBs by liquid chromatography on reversed phase sub-2-micron particle columns

A new ultra high-performance liquid chromatography method with UV detection was examined for detection and separation of polychlorinated biphenyls. This included optimization of separation conditions for two model mixtures containing seven and fifteen most relevant congeners, comparison of three types of reversed phase sub-2-micron particle sized columns and assessment of system suitability under the optimized conditions. Calibration curves determined in the range from 0.5 to 50.0 μg/mL exhibited correlation coefficients ranging from 0.997 to 0.999. Lower limits of detection ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. The most efficient Grace C18 column filled with 1.5 μm particles was then tested to separate the complex commercial mixture Delor 103, where the elution order was confirmed by GC-MS. 13 individual congeners were separated and some of the other co-eluting congeners could be resolved using another separation dimension performed with a mass spectrometry detector. The developed method could be directly applied to the separation of less complex mixtures in aqueous sample matrixes, which are used in general for enzyme degradation studies.     

Fused-core particle technology as an alternative to sub-2-microm particles to achieve high separation efficiency with low backpressure

Fused-Core particles have recently been introduced as an alternative to using sub-2-microm particles in chromatographic separations. Fused-Core particles are composed of a 1.7 microm solid core surrounded by a 0.5 microm porous silica layer (d(p) = 2.7 microm) to reduce mass transfer and increase peak efficiency. The performance of two commercially available Fused-Core particles (Advanced Materials Technology Halo C18 and Supelco Ascentis Express C18) was compared with sub-2-microm particles from Waters, Agilent, and Thermo Scientific. Although the peak efficiencies were only approximately 80% of those obtained by the Waters Acquity particles, the 50% lower backpressure allowed columns to be coupled in series to increase peak efficiency to 92,750 plates. The low backpressure and high efficiencies of the Fused-Core particles offer a viable alternative to using sub-2-microm particles and very-high-pressure LC instrumentation.     

Kinetic plot and particle size distribution analysis to discuss the performance limits of sub-2 microm and supra-2 microm particle columns

To contribute to the current debate about the "ideal" particle size range (sub-2mum vs. supra-2mum), the present study compares the kinetic performance of some commercially available sub-2mum and 3.5mum particles used under quasi-adiabatic conditions via the kinetic plot method. Under the adopted assumption that viscous heating effects can be neglected (which is uncertain in a pressure range above 400bar), the obtained kinetic plots show that, provided each particle size is used in a column with properly optimized length, the gain in separation speed that sub-2mum particle columns might have over maximally performing 2.5mum particle columns is very small. Sub-2mum particle columns can only yield a gain in separation speed in the range of high-speed/low-resolution-separations (total time based on k=10 below 5 or 10min). And even in this range, the actual gain that can be expected is only marginally small (only a few %). The present study hence suggests that the development and the use of particles in the 2-3mum range should deserve more attention than it did in the past few years. However, to be competitive, this 2-3mum material should be packed in relatively long columns, with a packing quality matching that of the current best performing 3.5mum particle columns. The supra-2mum particles should also be able to withstand the same pressures as the sub-2mum particle material one is comparing it to.     

Relation between the particle size distribution and the kinetic performance of packed columns. Application to a commercial sub-2 microm particle material

To study the influence of the particle size distribution (PSD), we measured the chromatographic performance of a series of sub-2 microm particle high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) columns packed with four different particle mixtures having a purposely imposed different size distribution. Using the reduced kinetic plot representation by plotting the separation impedance (E(0)) versus the plate number ratio (N(opt)/N), the different columns could be classified according to their chromatographic performance without the need to specify a mean particle diameter or a molecular diffusion coefficient, as is needed in the classical reduced plate height and flow resistance analysis. The present analysis shows that it is not so much the width or span of the particle size distribution, but rather the presence of fines that greatly determines the chromatographic performance of particulate columns.     

The application of sub-2-microm particle liquid chromatography-operated high mobile linear velocities coupled to orthogonal accelerated time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the analysis of ranitidine and its impurities

Impurity profiling of pharmaceutical drug substances or dosage formulations require methods involving high sensitivity and resolution from LC and MS alike as well as an acceptable analysis time. While throughput can be increased, it is usually at the expense of chromatographic resolution. The application of sub-2-microm stationary phases and high mobile linear velocities has been combined with orthogonal acceleration (oa)-TOF MS for the impurity structural characterization analysis of small-molecule pharmaceutics. A pharmaceutical drug substance was forcefully degraded and used to test the proof of concept of developing an impurity profile method by ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). Optimum conditions were identified by use of method development simulation software as well as traditional approaches of method scouting with columns and a varied range of pH. Further analysis illustrated the effectiveness of applying oa-TOF MS techniques to assist in achieving exact mass coupled with MS/MS to define the structural characterization of the related substances relative to the pharmaceutical active ingredient and identification of any unknown impurity substances. The barriers with trade-offs between resolution and speed are overcome by the application of UPLC, whereas the increased sensitivity provides for superior exact mass oa-TOF MS.     

Pharmaceutical applications on columns packed with sub-2 microm particles

During the last few years, there has been a great interest in the development of fast liquid chromatography. Among the reported approaches, the reduction of the particle size to attain sub-2microm diameter represents a good solution for achieving both increased separation power and faster analysis time. This paper demonstrates the chromatographic performance of such supports using plate-height curves and reveals the possibility for obtaining ultra-fast or highly efficient separations, according to the column geometry and system pressure limitations. The stability of these columns is initially evaluated using a system suitability experiment. The chromatographic performance remains stable in terms of retention, efficiency, and pressure for more than 1700 injections with pressure conditions ranging from 200 to 800 bar. Several fast and ultra-fast pharmaceutical applications are reported. In isocratic mode, a 5- to 10-fold reduction in analysis time is obtained with limited influence on efficiency and resolution. The run time is further reduced by 30-fold with the shorter available columns (i.e., 30 mm length). In gradient mode, the separation of a complex mixture containing an active pharmaceutical compound and related impurities is significantly improved with column length equal to 100 mm, to increase peak capacity and resolution.     

Characterisation of RPLC columns packed with porous sub-2 microm particles

Eight commercially available sub-2 microm octadecyl silane columns (C18 columns) have been characterised by the Tanaka protocol. The columns can be grouped into two groups that display large differences in selectivity and peak shape due to differences in hydrophobicity, degree of surface coverage and silanol activity. Measurements of particle size distributions were made using automated microscopy and electrical sensing zone measurements. Only a weak correlation could be found between efficiency and particle size. Large differences in column backpressure were observed. These differences are not related to particle size distribution. A more likely explanation is differences in packing density. In order to take full advantage of 100-150 mm columns packed with sub-2 microm particles, it is often necessary to employ not only an elevated pressure but also an elevated temperature. A comparison between columns packed with sub-2, 3 and 5 microm versions of the same packing indicates potential method transferability problems for several of the columns due to selectivity differences. Currently, the best alternative for fast high-resolution LC is the use of sub-2 microm particles in combination with elevated pressure and temperature. However, as shown in this study additional efforts are needed to improve transferability as well as column performance.     

Detailed characterisation of the flow resistance of commercial sub-2 micrometer reversed-phase columns

The pressure-drop characteristics of six sub-2 microm columns of three different manufacturers but with the same surface chemistry (C(18)) have been studied using the recently introduced total pore blocking method for the determination of the external porosity and by using scanning electron microscopy pictures to measure the actual size of the particles. Having used the Sauter-mean particle size to correctly account for the particle size spread, and having corrected for the influence of the intra-particle porosity, it was found that all columns yielded Kozeny-Carman constant (f(KC)) values close to 180, in agreement with the theory. This agreement could subsequently be used to quantify how the different system parameters such as mean particle size, packing density and intra-particle porosity (all tending to vary significantly from manufacturer to manufacturer) each contributes to the observed total bed permeability. Small (upward) deviations from the f(KC)=180-value could be correlated to a larger width of the particle size distribution, and more notably to the existence of a high size ratio of the largest to the smallest particles present in the particle batches.     

Superficially porous particles columns for super fast HPLC separations

Superficially porous silica particles columns (SPSPCs) are manufactured by different companies. The most common have the brand names Halo, Ascentis Express and Kinetex. These columns provide super fast, sharp peaks and moderate sample loading and back pressure. These are available in different chemistries such as C?, C??, RP Amide and Hilic. Normally, the silica gel particles have 2.7 and 1.7 μm total and inner solid core diameters with 0.5 μm thick outer porous layer, 90?? pore size and 150?m2/g surface area. They have been used for the separation and identification of low and high molecular weight compounds. The present article describes the state of the art of superficially porous silica particles based columns with special emphasis on their structures, mechanisms of separation, applications and comparison.     

Comparison of phenyl-type columns in the development of a fast liquid chromatographic system for eighteen opiates commonly found in forensic toxicology

We report a precise and reliable method for the detection of 18 of the most commonly found opiates on the Belgian legal and illicit market, by ion-exchange, reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, using a conventional phenyl-type analytical column (150x4.6 mm I.D., particle size 5 microm) and diode-array detection. We also describe a performance (efficiency and sensitivity) comparison of this column to a recently developed "high-speed" column (53x7.0 mm I.D., particle size 3 microm) packed with the same stationary phase, and used under slightly adjusted flow and gradient conditions. The final method, using the "high-speed" column, showed a significant reduction (55%) in analysis time without loss of resolution and sensitivity.     

Practical aspects of fast reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography using 3 microm particle packed columns and monolithic columns in pharmaceutical development and production working under current good manufacturing practice

The potential and limitations of fast reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic separations for assay and purity of drug substances and drug products were investigated in the pharmaceutical industry working under current good manufacturing practice using particle packed columns and monolithic columns. On particle packed columns, the pressure limitation of commercially available HPLC systems was found to be the limiting factor for fast separations. On 3 microm particle packed columns, HPLC run times (run to run) for assay and purity of pharmaceutical products of 20 min could be achieved. As an interesting alternative, monolithic columns were investigated. Monolithic columns can be operated at much higher flow rates, thus allowing for much shorter run times compared to particle packed columns. Compared to particle packed columns, the analysis time could be reduced by a factor up to 6. However, some compounds investigated showed a dramatic loss of efficiency at higher flow rates. This phenomenon was observed for some larger molecules supporting the theory that mass transfer is critical for applications on monolithic columns. At flow rates above 3 ml/min some HPLC instruments showed a dramatic increase in noise, making quantifications at low levels impossible. For very fast separations on monolithic columns, the maximum data acquisition rate of the detector is the limiting factor.     

Possibilities and limitations of fast GC with narrow-bore columns

In this work, two narrow-bore capillary columns with different internal diameters (I.D.) 0.15 mm (15 m length, 0.15 microm film thickness) and 0.10 mm (10 m length, 0.10 microm film thickness) with the same stationary phase (5% diphenyl 95% dimethylsiloxane), phase ratio and separation power were compared with regard to their advantages, practical limitations and applicability in fast GC on commercially available instrumentation. The column comparison concerns fast GC method development, speed and separation efficiency, the sample transfer into the column utilizing split and splitless inlet, sample capacity, detection (analysing compounds of a wide range of polarities and volatilities--even n-alkanes C16-C28 and selected pesticides) and ruggedness (in the field of ultratrace analysis of pesticide residues in real matrix). Under conditions corresponding to speed/separation efficiency trade-off 0.10 mm I.D. versus 0.15 mm I.D. column provides a speed gain of 1.74, but all other parameters investigated were better for the 0.15 mm I.D. column concerning more efficient sample transfer from inlet to the column using splitless injection, no discrimination with split injection. Better sample capacity (three times higher for the 0.15 mm than for the 0.10 mm I.D. column) resulted in improved ruggedness and simpler fast GC-MS method development.     

Comparison of different packing methods for capillary electrochromatography columns

A study was carried out in which 50 microm I.D. fused-silica capillaries were packed with 3 microm octadecylsilane bonded silica, from the same batch, by four methods; liquid slurry and carbon dioxide supercritical carrier, each with and without the use of an ultrasonic probe. A neutral test mixture was analysed by capillary column in reversed-phase mode, and the reproducibility of the electroosmotic flow and of migration time, column efficiency and retention factors, was determined. Initially results suggested that there was no significant difference between properties of columns packed by different methods, and a more thorough statistical evaluation confirmed this; differences observed in the column performance were attributed to random variations between replicate columns, and not between packing methods. However, the variation was least when applying the ultrasonication during liquid slurry.     

Direct resolution of racemic compounds on chiral microbore columns by sub- and supercritical fluid chromatography

Fast resolutions of racemic compounds (sulfoxides, amino alcohols, and α-methylarylacetic acids derivatives) were achieved on a chiral microbore column using carbon dioxide and a polar methanol/dioxane modifier. The stationary phase used in this study contains the 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl derivative of R,R(?)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane (DACH-DNB) as the chiral moiety, anchored to a silica gel surface by covalent bonds. Both thermodynamic and kinetic separation performances were improved by using a super- or subcritical carbon dioxide mobile phase (SFC, SubFC).     

Practical aspects of fast HPLC separations for pharmaceutical process development using monolithic columns

A large number of samples can be generated during pharmaceutical process development. Fast separation for these samples is usually challenging due to the complexity of sample matrix, which requires high efficiency as well as high speed. Monolithic columns (E. Merck, Germany) were investigated as a possible tool for reducing separation time in reversed-phase HPLC without significantly sacrificing efficiency or resolution. Both van Deemter plots and separations of alkyl benzenes and in-process samples showed that monolithic columns were suitable for fast separations without significantly compromising resolution. Practical parameters including the pressure drop, retention factor, selectivity, and tailing factor of monolithic columns (Chromolith type) were compared to those of conventional YMC 150 mm × 4.6 mm (3-μm particles) and 250 mm × 4.6 mm (5-μm particles) packed columns. The batch-to-batch reproducibility of the 100 mm × 4.6 mm Chromolith columns from five randomly ordered batches was also compared to the 250 mm × 4.6 mm YMC particle-packed columns. Fast and efficient separations of complicated process samples including crude drug substances, reaction mixtures, and crystallized mother liquors were demonstrated for both monolithic columns and conventional packed columns. The analysis times were decreased by three to seven times on the coupled monolithic columns, while maintaining the comparable resolution to typical 5-μm particle-packed 250 mm × 4.6 mm columns.     

Comparison of HILIC columns for residue analysis of dithiocarbamate fungicides

Selective determination of dithiocarbamate (DTC) fungicides is mainly performed by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC). According to Crnogorac and Schwack, DTC analyses by HILIC only lead to meaningful results with a zwitterionic polymer-based hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (ZIC-pHILIC) column. Considering the limited availability of this special type of column and the importance of DTC residue analysis, several new HILIC columns were evaluated as alternatives to the ZIC-pHILIC column. Detection was carried out by ultraviolet light and by mass spectrometry (MS) on a single quadrupole mass spectrometer coupled to an electrospray ionization interface operating in negative mode. On nearly all tested columns, separation of dimethyldithiocarbamates, ethylenebis(dithiocarbamates), and propylenebis(dithiocarbamates) was achieved with ammonium acetate eluents (pH 6.8). However, due to ion suppression by the buffer and the limited alkaline pH stability, the tested silica-based columns were not suitable for the sensitive analysis of DTCs. The polymer-based iHILIC-Fusion was the only alternative that offered high MS sensitivity, when a buffer containing 15?mM aqueous ammonium hydroxide and 7.5?mM ammonium hydrogen carbonate (pH 9.8) was used, but the separation of the three DTC subclasses was poor. Thus, considering both selectivity and sensitivity, the originally proposed polymer-based ZIC-pHILIC column still outperformed all the tested newly available alternative HILIC columns.     

Comparison of packed and capillary columns for practical SFC separations

Summary A newly developed polysiloxane-type packing material shows promise for use in SFC. Relatively polar compounds were eluted from a microbore column with good peakshape using a mobile phase consisting of CO₂ modified with formic acid and water. The latter combination is an effective modifier suitable for use with pressure programming and FID detection.

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Vergleich von gepackten und Capillar-Säulen für praktische SFC-Trennungen

     

Comparison of monolithic silica and polymethacrylate capillary columns for LC

Organic polymer monolithic capillary columns were prepared in fused-silica capillaries by radical co-polymerization of ethylene dimethacrylate and butyl methacrylate monomers with azobisisobutyronitrile as initiator of the polymerization reaction in the presence of various amounts of porogenic solvent mixtures and different concentration ratios of monomers and 1-propanol, 1,4-butanediol, and water. The chromatographic properties of the organic polymer monolithic columns were compared with those of commercial silica-based particulate and monolithic capillary and analytical HPLC columns. The tests included the determination of H-u curves, column permeabilities, pore distribution by inversed-SEC measurements, methylene and polar selectivities, and polar interactions with naphthalenesulphonic acid test samples. Organic polymer monolithic capillary columns show similar retention behaviour to chemically bonded alkyl silica columns for compounds with different polarities characterized by interaction indices, Ix, but have lower methylene selectivities and do not show polar interactions with sulphonic acids. The commercial capillary and analytical silica gel-based monolithic columns showed similar selectivities and provided symmetrical peaks, indicating no significant surface heterogeneities. To allow accurate characterization of the properties of capillary monolithic columns, the experimental data should be corrected for extra-column contributions. With 0.3 mm ID capillary columns, corrections for extra-column volume contributions are sufficient, but to obtain true information on the efficiency of 0.1 mm ID capillary columns, the experimental bandwidths should be corrected for extra-column contributions to peak broadening.