Experiences with Using Expert Systems in O.R.

Increased awareness of expert systems technology, and the availability of relevant software, has tempted many O.R. groups to investigate the expert systems approach. This paper considers the strategies open to O.R. groups interested in employing expert systems, reviews some of the relevant software, and discusses what those O.R. groups who have already investigated the use of expert systems methods are actually doing.Some of the authors' experience of developing expert systems is discussed. The development of an expert system that helps bankers analyse company accounts is presented. The use of expert system methods as vehicles for decision analysis, and the possibilities for producing systems that act as O.R. consultants are also discussed.     

The Search for Appropriate O.R.: A Review of Operational Research in Developing Countries

This paper is a review of the literature relating to the application of O.R. in developing countries. The paper attempts to identify the special factors which affect decision problems in developing countries. Some desirable characteristics for O.R. in this context are outlined. The paper then summarises the results of a review of published studies, and some criticisms are made of current O.R. work.     

A Kuhnian Crisis in Management Science?

A survey of the Journal of the O.R. Society in 1978 shows that Ackoff's papers were part of a quite widespread and often pessimistic debate about the practical success of O.R. A similar survey for 1968 shows, on the other hand, a widespread mood of optimism. It is suggested that O.R. is now in a period of crisis analogous to that described by Kuhn in the Natural Sciences, when the dominant framework of assumptions appears to fail in relation to important problems. When such failures persist, alternative frameworks are proposed challenging the hitherto accepted view, and an increasingly wide-ranging debate develops. Many of the features of such debates, as outlined by Kuhn, seem to be present in the current controversy within O.R. More specifically, it seems possible in O.R. and related fields to identify three rival sets of proposals, which may be labelled official, reformist (e.g. Ackoffian) and revolutionary. However, the debate in O.R. differs from that in the Natural Sciences because it is not just about the best means of understanding the empirical world. It is also about the type of social world to be constructed through the framework of assumptions adopted. Our view is that in the current debate, proponents of the reformist stance will probably win. However, this may be very much an interim solution.     

Some Aspects of Managing O.R. Projects

This paper presents views based on experiences as team member, project leader and Director of a large O.R. group, followed by observing the performance of several O.R. groups and finally as a user of O.R. in the position of part-time director of several companies. It looks at the importance of sponsorship, finding the right sponsor and ensuring that he is well-motivated and understood, the importance of management skills at the project leader level, correct definition of the project objective, thorough planning, selection and presentation of recommendations, implementation and checking the actual pay off. It also discusses the O.R. group as a whole, its place in the organisation, the portfolio of projects, development of O.R. staff and some thoughts on how the method of charging the organisation for O.R. projects may affect the long-term development of this activity. Finally, it presents symptoms of inefficiency and of impending failure of O.R. groups.     

O.R. Education and Developing Economies with Special Reference to India

The paper reviews the current state of application of O.R. in general and in developed economies in particular. It then analyses the causes for unsatisfactory application of O.R. in developing economies. Based on the analysis, the paper proceeds to review the existing O.R. education and training and develops an integrated design of O.R. education and training for developing economies. The paper outlines the role that international agencies should play in implementing the proposed scheme of O.R. education and training for developing economies.     

Lessons for O.R. from the World of Banking

This paper will be of interest to the reader concerned with O.R. in banking and to the more general reader concerned with the successful development of O.R. The paper describes and analyses the complex historical development of the O.R. Group in the National Westminster Bank, which, since 1966, has grown into one of the leading O.R. groups in finance. As well as providing a new and original documentation of the type of problem areas and approaches that have been examined in the relatively short history of O.R. in banking, the paper draws on the experience of O.R. at NatWest and that of other O.R. groups in other European banks in order to identify the factors which determine whether or not an O.R. group will develop successfully.     

O.R. and Public Expenditure Planning and Control

The problems of public expenditure planning and control to which O.R. can make a contribution are identified. Suggestions are made for research by those in O.R. both within government and in universities. Recent work in the Treasury on financial models and information systems are discussed in terms of how such work might be applied elsewhere and extended to include measures of achievement. The topics covered include planning for uncertainty and theory development by O.R. in models of inflation and social justice.     

Artificial Intelligence—An Overview of Similarities with O.R.

A brief outline of A.I. is provided, noting problems, techniques and objectives which are similar to those found in O.R. It is intended that this will indicate to O.R. workers which A.I. areas might be worth following up as relevant to their own work and which problems in A.I. might be attacked by the O.R. community as part of the development of intelligent support systems.     

Intermediate Generality Simulation Software for Production

Simulation has long been a valuable tool in the field of production. With the current and anticipated developments in computing equipment, there is a demand for simulation software, which can be used by managers to investigate specific classes of problems. The O.R. profession should involve itself in the identification of suitable areas and the development of appropriate software. Two such areas where simulation software is being developed are discussed: production planning in a batch environment and the investigation of advanced manufacturing systems.     

The Role of Management Science

Many of the arguments that are found in the literature on the theme "O.R./M.S. in crisis" stem not just from alternative definitions of O.R./M.S., but from differences in strongly held views about its scope and role in organisations, and these are then reflected in the vehemence with which certain definitions are defended or criticised. It is when the hopes and aspirations of O.R./M.S. are compared with what is being achieved in practice, that we realise the degree to which O.R./M.S. has failed to live up to its original promise. In most organisations, O.R. analysts are expected and are happy to act as technicians and not as advisers, so that technique orientation and concern with tactical problems are constantly reinforced. In addition, managers in various functions have become aware of the potential contribution of analytical modelling in their own spheres and have begun to recruit analysts direct, resulting in the possible fragmentation of O.R. and the loss of its unique identity. The responsibilities of O.R./M.S. obviously relate not only to its organisational status, but also to an examination of and an identification with organisational goals. Many O.R. analysts are plainly more comfortable when these goals are clearly defined for them, an attitude which people from other professions will readily endorse, but if O.R./M.S. has any aspirations to get involved in strategic problems, it will have to pose questions about the validity and appropriateness of organisational goals and try to influence the formulation of problems accordingly.     

Lessons for O.R. from A.I.: A Scheduling Case Study

This paper compares operational research (O.R.) with the currently fashionable topic of artificial intelligence (A.I.) at a detailed level. A.I. concepts, techniques and history are summarized, and O.R. and A.I. approaches compared. A case study-the development of a potential aid to scheduling repair jobs on RAF squadrons—is described. The paper shows where A.I. concepts and techniques were used in the prototype program, known as the Fault Identification & Expediting Repair (FIXER) system. Finally, some lessons for O.R. are drawn.     

O.R. Education — A Survey of Young O.R. Workers

This paper presents the results of a survey into O.R. education that was conducted with the help of those attending the Young O.R. Conference (YOR II) held at Nottingham University in March 1982. The results of a workshop debate held at the conference into the direction of O.R. education are also discussed.The conclusions drawn are that O.R. education in this country appears to be quite successful but that it is failing to deal satisfactorily with a number of issues. These issues relate to keeping up-to-date with changes in computer technology and their impact upon O.R. workers; the teaching of methodology to deal with ill-defined problems; preparation for the political and working environment of organizations; and the fostering of desirable personal characteristics.     

Operational Research for the Real World: big questions from a small island

The address explores three questions that are important for operational research: ‘Where do we come from?’, ‘What are we?’ and ‘Where are we going?’ First, it looks briefly at the history of O.R. from Babbage to Blackett and the importance of a ‘union of theory and practice’ in our work. Then it looks at O.R.'s identity and image and argues that we do have a reasonably clear idea of our identity, although we do not give sufficient prominence to our contribution to improving system design. It also argues that the ‘brand image’ of O.R. has become diluted and needs to be simple, distinctive, relevant and compelling. In considering how we might achieve that, by addressing the third question, it proposes that we should grow our capability and activity in accommodating ‘analytics’, in building in behavioural science, in coping with complex systems, in developing design thinking and in encouraging evaluation. It also suggests strengthening bridges between academics and practitioners, between those working in different specialisms and in diverse sectors and between O.R. and the public. Finally, it argues that such developments would assist O.R. to reinforce our bridge between science and the humanities and enable us to better meet the challenges of the ‘real world’.     

The Art of Course Planning: Soft O.R. in Action

This article is a case study described from two viewpoints: that of an analyst and that of a ‘decision-maker’. It describes the use of two ‘soft O.R.’ methods in helping the members of a university O.R. group to plan revisions to a postgraduate Diploma course, resulting in the implementation of an improved course. One author conducted the exercise while the other was a member of the client group. Given that case studies are usually written by the analyst alone, it is hoped that a client's eye-view will be useful as feedback for practitioners and can also introduce some of the concepts and terminology of soft O.R. to those engaged in more mathematical O.R. activities.     

The Changing Role of O.R.

The authors set out to consider the activities of their own O.R. group at British Airways in the light of Russ Ackoff's papers delivered at the 1978 ORS Conference, but the paper has developed into a discussion of Ackoff's ideas from the viewpoint of an in-house industrial O.R. group that has had considerable success in implementation and has thought a great deal about what it is trying to do. Particularly relevant is the emphasis placed by this O.R. group on highly interactive planning models and systems and on an evolutionary approach to development. Some attempt is made to put Ackoff's ideas into an historical perspective and his main points are discussed one by one. The authors are in sympathy with the direction Ackoff is pressing, but not with the gloom his paper has generated in some quarters.     

Personal Computers and Operational Research — Experience in British Steel

The exploitation in personal computers of the well-publicized micro-technology is seen by the author as a major development with significant implications for O.R. This paper considers the nature of the implications from the point of view of the central O.R. unit of the British Steel Corporation and discusses that unit's response. The personal computer options are discussed and the applications policy which has been evolved for the author's department explained.     

磁流体方程组弱解在负指标Besov空间中基于旋度和电流的正则性标准

本文研究了不可压磁流体方程组弱解的正则性准则,设(u(t,x),6(t,x))是不可压磁流体方程组在(O,T)上的光滑解,如果旋度和电流密度满足(▽× u,▽× b) ∈ L 2-a/2 (O, T;B-aa∞, ∞(R3)) ηL1-a/2(O,T;B-∞1,-a∞(R3)),0＜α＜1,则光滑解(u(t,x),b(t,x))可以连续延拓到(O,T'),T'＞T.而且这个条件可以保证满足能量不等式的弱解是(O,T)上的光滑解.     

O.R. and the Systems Movement: Mappings and Conflicts

The ‘crisis’ debate in O.R. expresses concern at the divergence between textbook O.R. and what practitioners actually do. The debate is examined by comparing O.R., systems analysis and systems engineering. They are all wedded to logic in situations in which logic may not be paramount. The science in O.R. applies only to aggregate results, but the practitioner must deal with a specific situation. The tradition of systems thinking which emerged from organismic biology is described. It leads to a way out of the O.R. ‘crisis’, by providing a formal structuring of a paradigm of learning rather than optimization. O.R. can aspire to match natural science, and pass the problems by; or it can close the textbook/practitioner gap by changing its concept of ‘being scientific’.     

环上的拓扑和偏序

在环R上引入了拓扑O[R]和偏序≤R,证明了(R,O[R])是可分的,第一可数的局部紧空间,并得出了如下结论:(1)(R*,O*[R])是T1的当且仅当O*[R]是离散的当且仅当R中的任一元r满足r=r2=-r;(2)若(R,O[R])是T0的,则U∈O[R]当且仅当U=↓U;(3)若R是伪有限的且对任意r都有〈r〉>2,则(R,≤R)是代数Domain;(4)若环R的特征数chR为2,则R是伪有限的当且仅当Rop是代数Domain。