Concerted proton-electron transfer in the oxidation of hydrogen-bonded phenols

Three phenols with pendant, hydrogen-bonded bases (HOAr-B) have been oxidized in MeCN with various one-electron oxidants. The bases are a primary amine (-CPh(2)NH(2)), an imidazole, and a pyridine. The product of chemical and quasi-reversible electrochemical oxidations in each case is the phenoxyl radical in which the phenolic proton has transferred to the base, (*)OAr-BH(+), a proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) process. The redox potentials for these oxidations are lower than for other phenols, predominately from the driving force for proton movement. One-electron oxidation of the phenols occurs by a concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) mechanism, based on thermochemical arguments, isotope effects, and DeltaDeltaG(++)/DeltaDeltaG degrees . The data rule out stepwise paths involving initial electron transfer to form the phenol radical cations [(*)(+)HOAr-B] or initial proton transfer to give the zwitterions [(-)OAr-BH(+)]. The rate constant for heterogeneous electron transfer from HOAr-NH(2) to a platinum electrode has been derived from electrochemical measurements. For oxidations of HOAr-NH(2), the dependence of the solution rate constants on driving force, on temperature, and on the nature of the oxidant, and the correspondence between the homogeneous and heterogeneous rate constants, are all consistent with the application of adiabatic Marcus theory. The CPET reorganization energies, lambda = 23-56 kcal mol(-)(1), are large in comparison with those for electron transfer reactions of aromatic compounds. The reactions are not highly non-adiabatic, based on minimum values of H(rp) derived from the temperature dependence of the rate constants. These are among the first detailed analyses of CPET reactions where the proton and electron move to different sites.     

染料敏化太阳电池中多相接触界面电子转移机制和动力学过程

采用电化学阻抗谱(EIS)研究了染料敏化太阳电池(DSC)中由导电玻璃、 纳米多孔TiO₂薄膜和电解质构成的多相复杂接触界面的电子转移机制和动力学过程. 通过沉积聚合物薄膜简化多相接触界面结构, 根据接触界面结构和电子转移途径的变化, 分析了不同偏压下多相接触界面电子转移机制, 构建与之对应的等效电路, 获得了DSC内部各个主要接触界面的电子转移动力学常数. 结果表明, 通过外加偏压的控制和多相接触界面结构的简化, 可以区别分析多相复杂接触界面电子转移机制与动力学过程.     

Ligand structure, conformational dynamics, and excited-state electron delocalization for control of photoinduced electron transfer rates in synthetic donor-bridge-acceptor systems

Synthesis, ground-, and excited-state properties are reported for two new electron donor-bridge-acceptor (D-B-A) molecules and two new photophysical model complexes. The D-B-A molecules are [Ru(bpy)2(bpy-phi-MV)](PF6)4 (3) and [Ru(tmb)2(bpy-phi-MV)](PF6)4 (4), where bpy is 2,2'-bipyridine, tmb is 4,4',5,5'-tetramethyl-2,2'-bipyridine, MV is methyl viologen, and phi is a phenylene spacer. Their model complexes are [Ru(bpy)2(p-tol-bpy)](PF6)2 (1) and [Ru(tmb)2(p-tol-bpy)](PF6)2 (2), where p-tolyl-bpy is 4-(p-tolyl)-2,2'-bipyridine. Photophysical characterization of 1 and 2 indicates that 2.17 eV and 2.12 eV are stored in their respective (3)MLCT (metal-to-ligand charge transfer) excited state. These values along with electrochemical measurements show that photoinduced electron transfer (D*-B-A-->D (+)-B-A(-)) is favorable in 3 and 4 with DeltaG degrees(ET)=-0.52 eV and -0.62 eV, respectively. The driving force for the reverse process (D(+)-B-A(-) --> D-B-A) is also reported: DeltaG degrees(BET)=-1.7 eV for 3 and -1.5 eV for 4. Transient absorption (TA) spectra for 3 and 4 in 298 K acetonitrile provide evidence that reduced methyl viologen is observable at 50 ps following excitation. Detailed TA kinetics confirm this, and the data are fit to a model to determine both forward (k(ET)) and back (k(BET)) electron transfer rate constants: k(ET)=2.6 x 10(10) s(-1) for 3 and 2.8 x 10(10) s(-1) for 4; k(BET)=0.62 x 10(10) s(-1) for 3 and 1.37 x 10(10) s(-1) for 4. The similar rate constants k ET for 3 and 4 despite a 100 meV driving force (DeltaG degrees(ET)) increase suggests that forward electron transfer in these molecules in room temperature acetonitrile is nearly barrierless as predicted by the Marcus theory. The reduction in electron transfer reorganization energy necessary for this barrierless reactivity is attributed to excited-state electron delocalization in the (3)MLCT excited states of 3 and 4, an effect that is made possible by excited-state conformational changes in the aryl-substituted ligands of these complexes.     

Model dialkyl peroxides of the fenton mechanistic probe 2-methyl-1-phenyl-2-propyl hydroperoxide (MPPH): kinetic probes for dissociative electron transfer

Two dialkyl peroxides, devised as kinetic probes for the heterogeneous electron transfer (ET), are studied using heterogeneous and homogeneous electrochemical techniques. The peroxides react by concerted dissociative ET reduction of the O-O bond. Under heterogeneous conditions, the only products isolated are the corresponding alcohols from a two-electron reduction as has been observed with other dialkyl peroxides studied to date. However, under homogeneous conditions, a generated alkoxyl radical undergoes a rapid beta-scission fragmentation in competition with the second ET resulting in formation of acetone and a benzyl radical. With knowledge of the rate constant for fragmentation and accounting for the diffuse double layer at the electrode interface, the heterogeneous ET rate constant to the alkoxyl radicals is estimated to be 1500 cm s(-1). The heterogeneous and homogeneous ET kinetics of the O-O bond cleavage have also been measured and examined as a function of the driving force for ET, deltaG(ET), using dissociative electron transfer theory. From both sets of kinetics, besides the evaluation of thermochemical parameters, it is demonstrated that the heterogeneous and homogeneous reduction of the O-O bond appears to be non-adiabatic.     

Probing TCNQ‐mediated Metal Reduction Reactions at Liquid‐liquid Interface with SECM

Metal reduction at the interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES) has been studied with scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). Metal cations in the aqueous phase are reduced by 7,7,8,8‐tetracyanoquinodimethane anion (TCNQ^?) residing in the oil phase, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK). TCNQ^? is formed at the SECM tip by reducing TCNQ, which results in a positive feedback loop between the tip and the ITIES when an electron is donated to a metal cation. The effect of the Galvani potential difference on the rate of the interfacial electron transfer was investigated, establishing the potential difference either by an additional substrate electrode in the aqueous phase or by an a common ion in both phases. It is shown that the Galvani potential difference as a driving force does enable TCNQ^? mediated Cu²⁺ reduction. Finite element method (FEM) simulations were run to provide information on the reaction kinetics and stoichiometry.     

Insights into the free-energy dependence of intramolecular dissociative electron transfers

To study the relationship between rate and driving force of intramolecular dissociative electron transfers, a series of donor-spacer-acceptor (D-Sp-A) systems has been devised and synthesized. cis-1,4-Cyclohexanedyil and a perester functional group were kept constant as the spacer and acceptor, respectively. By changing the aryl substituents of the phthalimide moiety, which served as the donor, the driving force could be varied by 0.74 eV. X-ray diffraction crystallography and ab initio conformational calculations pointed to D-Sp-A molecules having the cis-(cyclohexane) equatorial(phthalimido)-axial(perester) conformation and the same D/A orientation. The intramolecular dissociative electron-transfer process was studied by electrochemical means in N,N-dimethylformamide, in comparison with thermodynamic and kinetic information obtained with models of the acceptor and the donor. The intramolecular process consists of the electron transfer from the electrochemically generated phthalimide-moiety radical anion to the peroxide functional group. The electrochemical analysis provided clear evidence of a concerted dissociative electron-transfer mechanism, leading to the cleavage of the O-O bond. Support for this mechanism was obtained by ab initio MO calculations, which provided information about the LUMO of the acceptor and the SOMO of the donor. The intramolecular rate constants were determined and compared with the corresponding intermolecular values, the latter data being obtained by using the model molecules. As long as the effective location of the centroid of the donor SOMO does not vary significantly by changing the aryl substituent(s), the intramolecular dissociative electron transfer obeys the same main rules already highlighted for the corresponding intermolecular process. On the other hand, introduction of a nitro group drags the SOMO away from the acceptor, and consequently, the intramolecular rate drops by as much as 1.6 orders of magnitude from the expected value. Therefore, a larger solvent reorganization than for intermolecular electron transfers and the effective D/A distance and thus electronic coupling must be taken into account for quantitative predictions of intramolecular rates.     

芦丁在离子液体[bmim]BF4中的电化学行为及其影响因素

采用线性扫描伏安法和循环伏安法研究了芦丁在亲水性离子液体1-丁基-3-甲基四氟硼酸盐([bmim]BF4)中的电化学行为, 讨论了扫描速度、富集时间及温度等因素对其电化学行为的影响. 结果表明, 芦丁在[bmim]BF4中的电极过程是一个受吸附控制的准可逆过程, 电子转移数为2, 标准速率常数ks=0.126 s-1. 同时, 分别考察了水及乙醇对芦丁氧化还原特性的影响, 结果发现, 随着水或乙醇含量的增加, 芦丁的峰电位负移, 峰电流增加, 且水的影响比乙醇的影响明显. 在离子液体-水体系中, 芦丁的峰电流与浓度在4.0×10-5～1.4×10-4 mol/L范围内呈良好的线性关系, 检出限为1.0×10-5 mol/L, 有望用于芦丁含量的分析测定.     

Elaboration of covalently linked polyoxometalates with ruthenium and pyrene chromophores and characteriation of their photophysical properties

Keggin and Dawson-type polyoxometalates (POMs) decorated by organometallic [cyclometalated ruthenium(II) polypyridine complex] or organic (pyrene) chromophores were prepared by postfunctionalization of hybrid disilylated POM platforms. The connection is made in a very efficient and modular way via Sonogashira coupling reactions, which provide a rigid linkage between the POM and the photoactive centers. Electronic properties have been inferred from electrochemical and photophysical studies and reflect poor electronic interactions between both partners. The presence of the POM leads to luminescence quenching of the chromophores, which was attributed to an intramolecular electron transfer from the chromophore to the POM. The rate of this process is much faster in the POM-pyrene than in the POM-Ru system. It depends on the driving force dictated by the redox potentials of both partners but also in the case of the POM-Ru system on the presence of the metallacycle, which acts as a molecular insulator and delays the intramolecular electron transfer. In the POM-Ru system, a comparative study of the luminescence quenching showed that the electron transfer is still more important in the covalently bonded hybrids than in systems where the POM and the ruthenium complexes are assembled via electrostatic interactions.     

Kinetic comparison between ferric ion and decamethyferrocene at the liquid/liquid interface as studied by scanning electrochemical microscopy

<正>Comparison in electron transfer(ET) processes from decamethyferrocene(DMFe) in nitrobenzene(NB) to ferric ion in aqueous phase was investigated for the first time by the scanning electrochemical microscopy(SECM).As compared with the system of Fe(CN)_6~(3-)-DMFe,the ET rate obtained from Fe~(3+)-DMFe was lower in spite of larger driving force,which may arise from the effect of reorganization energy.Otherwise,the effect of common ion on rate constants was also probed and results suggested additional complexity of the ET mechanism between Fe(CN)_6~(3-) and DMFe.     

Photochemical initiation of electron transfer reactions.

It is quite apparent that the use of photoinitiated electron transfer has become a powerful, if not dominating, technique in the study of biological electron transfer. It provides a means to measure directly very fast processes and, through the choice of approach (flavin semiquinones or related, metal substitution in hemes or modification with ruthenium) and experimental conditions, provides the ability to probe different features of the electron transfer mechanism. Nevertheless, much remains to be done to fully understand biological electron transfer. The use of photoinitiated electron transfer has clearly established a role for a number of factors involved in controlling the kinetics of electron transfer, including driving force, distance, intervening media, dynamics (conformational gating) and orientation of redox centers. However, we have only scratched the surface in regard to understanding in molecular terms the details of electron transfer in physiologically relevant systems. Thus, even relatively simple and well characterized systems like cytochrome c-cytochrome c peroxidase remain obscure in terms of the through-protein electron paths (intervening media) and the role of protein dynamics in controlling electron transfer kinetics. Indeed, it is the through-protein paths and conformational gating that are unique to biological systems and provide nature with the capability of modulating electron transfer kinetics to optimize biological function. Of the techniques described here, the use of flavin semiquinones is clearly the least invasive in that there is no evidence that flavin semiquinones bind to or perturb physiologically relevant systems. However, this approach is constrained in that precise distances and orientations are not always known, and the range of driving forces available is limited. In contrast, metal substitution and ruthenation allow the positions of interacting redox centers to be reasonably well defined and can provide a very large range of driving force. This latter point is particularly important since it provides a means to discriminate between rate limiting electron transfer and conformational gating. Nevertheless, chemically modifying redox proteins runs the risk of structural and electrostatic alterations which can be difficult to detect but have profound effects on the redox kinetics. Moreover, the intrinsic protein dynamics can be affected, resulting, in the worst case, in changes in conformational gating which cannot be resolved from rate limiting electron transfer. Given the early stage of development of photo-initiated electron transfer, substantial progress can be expected in the next few years. No doubt new approaches will be developed and existing approaches further refined. Especially important, the theoretical basis for interpreting and understanding electron transfer will continue to evolve.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Metal ion-promoted intramolecular electron transfer in a ferrocene-naphthoquinone linked dyad. Continuous change in driving force and reorganization energy with metal ion concentration

Thermal intramolecular electron transfer from the ferrocene (Fc) to naphthoquinone (NQ) moiety occurs efficiently by the addition of metal triflates (M(n)()(+): Sc(OTf)(3), Y(OTf)(3), Eu(OTf)(3)) to an acetonitrile solution of a ferrocene-naphthoquinone (Fc-NQ) linked dyad with a flexible methylene and an amide spacer, although no electron transfer takes place in the absence of M(n)()(+). The resulting semiquinone radical anion (NQ(*)(-)) is stabilized by the strong binding of M(n)()(+) with one carbonyl oxygen of NQ(*)(-)( )()as well as hydrogen bonding between the amide proton and the other carbonyl oxygen of NQ(*)(-). The high stability of the Fc(+)()-NQ(*)(-)/M(n)()(+)() complex allows us to determine the driving force of electron transfer by the conventional electrochemical method. The one-electron reduction potential of the NQ moiety of Fc-NQ is shifted to a positive direction with increasing concentration of M(n)()(+), obeying the Nernst equation, whereas the one-electron oxidation potential of the Fc moiety remains the same. The driving force dependence of the observed rate constant (k(ET)) of M(n)()(+)-promoted intramolecular electron transfer is well evaluated in light of the Marcus theory of electron transfer. The driving force of electron transfer increases with increasing concentration of M(n)()(+) [M(n)()(+)], whereas the reorganization energy of electron transfer decreases with increasing [M(n)()(+)] from a large value which results from the strong binding between NQ(*)(-) and M(n)()(+).     

Mn3+/Mn2+氧化还原体系的旋转圆盘电极法性能

氧化还原液流电池的独特性能受到关注[1～4]。本文综合运用循环伏安法,旋转圆盘电极法研究锰离子浓度较高(0 25～0 35mol·L-1、转速范围较宽(400～4200rpm)、同时考虑过电位的条件下Mn(Ⅲ)/Mn(Ⅱ)电对在RDE铂盘电极上的电极过程动力学并确定有关的动力学参数,了解其影响因素,为该电对作为氧化还原液流电池正极活性材料提供动力学依据。1　实验部分铂电极使用前在铬酸洗液中浸10min,水冲洗干净,蒸馏水淋洗,然后在6 3mol·L-1H2SO4中超声清洗10min,再用CHI660电化学工作站(美国CH仪器公司)控制,以0 05V/s的扫速在-1 0～1 2V之间扫…     

薄层液/液界面电子转移动力学的研究进展

薄层循环伏安法是研究液/液界面电荷转移的一种新方法,具有简单、快速、易操作的优点。文章回顾了液/液界面电化学的发展历史,介绍了薄层法的实验原理,对其在电化学中的应用和研究进展进行了评述,总结了界面驱动力与电子转移速率的关系。     

Electrochemical Characteristics of Glucose Oxidase Adsorbed at Carbon Nanotubes Modified Electrode with Ionic Liquid as Binder

Multiwall carbon nanotubes (CNTs)‐modified electrode has been prepared by using ionic liquid (IL) as the binder. The as‐prepared CNTs‐IL composite modified electrode has good biocompatibility and is a suitable matrix to immobilize biomolecules. Glucose oxidase (GOx), containing flavin adenine dinucleotide as active site, stably adsorbed on modified electrode surface has resulted in the direct electron transfer. The electron transfer rate of 9.08 s^?1 obtained is much higher than that of GOx adsorbed on the CNTs papers (1.7 s^?1), and the process is more reversible with small redox peak separation of 23 mV. This may be due to the synergetic promotion of CNTs and IL to electron transfer of the protein, especially the IL as the binder, showing better electrochemical properties than that of chitosan and Nafion. Furthermore, GOx adsorbed at the modified electrode exhibits good stability and keeps good electrocatalytic activity to glucose with broad linear range up to 20 mM. Besides, the simple preparation procedure and easy renewability make the system a basis to investigate the electron transfer kinetics and biocatalytic performance of GOx and provide a promising platform for the development of biosensors.     

卟啉-酞菁分子内能量传递和电子转移的溶剂效应

用稳态荧光光谱研究了以氧原子和哌嗪作为连接基的卟啉酞菁二元分子在不同溶剂中的分子内能量传递和电子转移过程结果表明;分子内的能量传递和电子转移是两个相互竞争的过程，在非极性溶剂中，激发单重态的能量传递是主要过程，而在极性溶剂中则以电子转移为主运用Rehm-Weller公式计算了两种二元化合物在不同溶剂中的电子转移反应的自由能变化△G0ET，表明溶剂的极性对电子转移反应的自由能变化△G0ET影响很大极性越大;体系中的电子转移反应的△G0ET、越负，电子转移反应越易进行由于电子转移过程较能量传递过程进行得快，所以表现为体系中能量传递效率降低而电子转移效率增大。两种二元化合物的能量传递效率（φEnT）利和电子转移效率（φET）随溶剂的极性的变化具有相同的变化趋势     

Heterogeneous electron transfer kinetics at the ionic liquid/metal interface studied using cyclic voltammetry and scanning electrochemical microscopy

The electrochemical behavior of a redox-active, ferrocene-modified ionic liquid (1-ferrocenylmethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide) in acetonitrile and in an ionic liquid electrolyte (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide) is reported. Reversible electrochemical behavior was observed in each electrolyte with responses typical of those for unmodified ferrocene observed in each medium. In the ionic liquid electrolyte, the diffusion coefficient of the redox-active ionic liquid increased by a factor of 5 upon increasing the temperature from 27 to 90 degrees C. The kinetics of electron transfer across the ionic liquid/electrode interface were studied using cyclic voltammetry, and the standard heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, k (0) was determined to be 4.25 x 10 (-3) cm s (-1). Scanning electrochemical microscopy was then also used to probe the heterogeneous kinetics at the interface between the ionic liquid and the solid electrode and conventional kinetic SECM theory was used to determine k (0). The k (0) value obtained using SECM was higher than that determined using cyclic voltammetry. These results indicate that SECM is a very useful technique for studying electron transfer dynamics in ionic liquids.     

Observation of the marcus inverted region of electron transfer reactions at a liquid/liquid interface

Scanning electrochemical microscopy was used to probe the influence of a driving force on the heterogeneous electron transfer (ET) processes at the externally polarized water/1,2-dichloroethane interface. Being a part of the driving force, the Galvani potential difference at the interface, Deltaowphi, can be quantitatively controlled in a wide range, allowing the precise measurements of the rate constants of the ET reactions. Two opposite systems were chosen in this work. One was 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl 21H,23H-porphyrin zinc (ZnPor, O)/Fe(CN)64- (W), and the other was TCNQ (O)/Fe(CN)63- (W). For both systems studied, the relations between the rate constant and the Deltaowphi were of parabolic shape; that is, the rate constants increased initially with the Deltaowphi until reaching a maximum and then decreased steadily as the Deltaowphi increased further. This is in accordance with the prediction of the Marcus theory. To our knowledge, this is the first report that the Marcus inverted region can be observed electrochemically at an unmodified liquid/liquid interface with only one redox couple at each phase. The effect of the concentrations of the organic supporting electrolyte has also been discussed in detail.     

Thin‐Layer Cyclic Voltammetric and Scanning Electrochemical Microscopic Study of Antioxidant Activity of Ascorbic Acid at Liquid/Liquid Interface

An electron transfer reaction between ascorbic acid (H₂A) in an aqueous solution and oxidizing agent in an organic solution immiscible with water has been studied by thin‐layer cyclic voltammetry (TLCV) for charge transfer at the interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES). As an antioxidant, H₂A provide electrons through the aqueous/organic interface to reduce Fc⁺ and the procedure has been proved to be a one electron process again. In this work, the first combination of TLCV and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was achieved and showed a reasonable agreement between the results from the two different approaches. Otherwise, lower concentration ratios Kr of aqueous to organic reactants was adopted, which is given as evidence to the proposed procedure of Barker.     

Kinetics of dissociative electron transfer to ascaridole and dihydroascaridole-model bicyclic endoperoxides of biological relevance

The homogeneous and heterogeneous electron transfer (ET) reduction of ascaridole (ASC) and dihydroascaridole (DASC), two bicyclic endoperoxides, chosen as convenient models of the bridged bicyclic endoperoxides found in biologically relevant systems, were studied in aprotic media by using electrochemical methods. ET is shown to follow a concerted dissociative mechanism that leads to the distonic radical anion, which is itself reduced in a second step by an overall two-electron process. The kinetics of homogeneous ET to these endoperoxides from an extensive series of radical anion electron donors were measured as a function of the driving force of electron transfer (deltaG(o)ET). The kinetics of heterogeneous ET were also studied by convolution analysis. Together, the heterogeneous and homogeneous ET kinetic data provide the best example of the parabolic nature of the activation-driving force relationship for a concerted dissociative ET described by Savéant; the data is particularly illustrative due to the low bond-dissociation enthalpy (BDE) of the O-O bond and hence small intrinsic barriers. Analysis of the data allowed the dissociative reduction potentials (E(o)diss) to be determined as -1.2 and -1.1 Vagainst SCE for ASC and DASC, respectively. Unusually low pre-exponential factors measured in temperature-dependent kinetic studies suggest that ET to these O-O bonded systems is nonadiabatic. Analysis of ET kinetics for ASC and DASC by the Savéant model with a modification for nonadiabaticity allowed the intrinsic free energy for ET to be determined. The use of this approach and estimates for the BDE provide approximations of the reorganization energies. We suggest the methodology described herein can be used to evaluate the extent of ET to other endoperoxides of biological relevance and to provide thermochemical data not otherwise available.