Capillary electrophoresis and electrochromatography of pesticides and metabolites

Synthetic pesticides are important chemicals since they are widely used to control many types of weeds, insects and other pests in a wide variety of agricultural and nonagricultural settings. This review article is aimed at describing the recent progress made in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) of pesticides and their metabolites. The various electrophoretic systems and detection schemes that have been introduced so far for the CE and CEC of pesticides are discussed. Also included in this review article are the various approaches for trace enrichment that are involved in the analysis of dilute pesticide samples.     

Recent developments in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography of carbohydrate species

This review article is concerned with the recent developments in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) of carbohydrates. The literature shows that CE possesses impressive potential in the analysis of carbohydrates. On the other hand, CEC has just started to show promise in the analysis of carbohydrates. Advances in separation and detection approaches of derivatized and underivatized carbohydrates are discussed based on the available literature. In addition, important applications are illustrated.     

Joule heating and determination of temperature in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography columns

This article reviews the progress that has taken place in the past decade on the topic of estimation of Joule heating and temperature inside an open or packed capillary in electro-driven separation techniques of capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC), respectively. Developments in theoretical modeling of the heat transfer in the capillary systems have focused on attempts to apply the existing models on newer techniques such as CEC and chip-based CE. However, the advent of novel analytical tools such as pulsed magnetic field gradient nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), NMR thermometry, and Raman spectroscopy, have led to a revolution in the area of experimental estimation of Joule heating and temperature inside the capillary via the various noninvasive techniques. This review attempts to capture the major findings that have been reported in the past decade.     

毛细管电色谱柱及其固定相制备技术的进展

毛细管电色谱结合了毛细管电泳的高分离效率和高效液相色谱的高选择性,因而在这几年受到了越来越多的关注。本文介绍了近期毛细管电色谱柱及其固定相制备方法和应用的进展。     

Capillary electrophoresis of proteins 2005-2007

This review article with 239 references describes recent developments in capillary electrophoresis of proteins, and covers the two years since the previous review (V. Dolník, Electrophoresis 2006, 27, 126-141) through spring 2007. It includes topics related to CE of proteins, such as sample pretreatment, wall coatings, improving separation, various forms of detection, and special electrophoretic techniques including ACE, CIEF, capillary ITP, and CEC. The paper describes applications of CE to analysis of proteins in real-world samples including human body fluids, food and agricultural samples, protein pharmaceuticals and recombinant protein preparations.     

Recent advances in chiral separation principles in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography

This review summarizes recent developments in chiral separation in capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), electrokinetic chromatography (EKC), and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) covering literature published since the year 2000. New chiral selectors and innovative approaches for CE and CEC are introduced. Recent progress in column technology for CEC is highlighted and the development of new chiral stationary phases is discussed. This review is not dedicated to list applications but will focus on new developments.     

毛细管电泳和毛细管电色谱技术在农药残留检测中的应用

由于毛细管电泳（CE）和毛细管电色谱（CEC）具有所需样品体积小、分离效率高等特点,越来越多的学者已将它们应用到农药残留（简称农残）检测中,并将它们同各种不同的检测器以及样品浓缩方法相结合,以提高检测的灵敏度。本文对CE和CEC两种方法中所涉及的常见的样品预浓缩方法进行了简要的介绍。对各种不同类型的检测器（如紫外检测、荧光检测、电化学检测以及质谱检测等）的优缺点及其在农残检测中的应用情况进行了评述;同时对手性农药的CE和CEC分离检测情况进行了特别介绍;并对CE和CEC在农残分析与检测中的应用前景进行了展望。     

Recent advances in polymeric monolithic stationary phases for electrochromatography in capillaries and chips

This review article summarizes the advances made over the last two years in polymeric monoliths for capillary electrochromatography (CEC). It covers the scientific literature in the period extending form the second half of 2002 until the end of first half of 2004. Currently, there is an increasing interest in monolithic stationary phases in CEC as an alternative to particulate packed capillary columns due in major part to the simplicity of the in situ preparation of monolithic stationary phases and the availability of a wide chemistry for surface ligands, which allow for tailoring the chromatographic sorbent needed for solving a given separation problem(s). The various approaches, formats, and chemistries used for the preparation of monolithic stationary phases are described.     

Capillary electrochromatography with physically and dynamically absorbed stationary phases

Adsorption is always considered a troublesome effect in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC). However, the adsorption effect can also be exploited to prepare or optimize the stationary phase in CEC. Compared with the chemical synthesis of new stationary phase materials for CEC, this method is simpler and more convenient. This review is focused on CEC with physically and dynamically adsorbed stationary phases. Separation of some acidic, basic and neutral solutes as well as enantiomers in CEC with dynamically adsorbed stationary phases are presented. The theory for the migration of charged solutes and the stationary phases currently used in CEC are also briefly reviewed.     

Overview of capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography.

This paper provides an overview on the current status of capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC). The focus is largely on the current application areas of CE where routine methods are now in place. These application areas include the analysis of DNA, clinical and forensic samples, carbohydrates, inorganic anions and metal ions, pharmaceuticals, enantiomeric species and proteins and peptides. More specific areas such the determination of physical properties, microchip CE and instrumentation developments are also covered. The application, advantages and limitations of CEC are covered. Recent review articles and textbooks are frequently cited to provide readers with a source of information regarding pioneering work and theoretical treatments.     

Separation of enantiomers by capillary electrochromatography

The current popularity of capillary electrochromatography (CEC) has led to an increasing number of studies on the development and evaluation of enantioselective CEC systems. These studies clearly demonstrate that the most prominent advantage of electrically driven separation methods, the vastly increased column efficiency as compared to pressure-driven chromatography, can also be experimentally achieved for the separations of enantiomers. In analogy to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE), several approaches have been used. The addition of a chiral selector to the mobile phase is the simplest method. Less erroneous and more elegant approaches are those that use open-tubular, conventional packed, and monolithic columns containing chiral stationary phases that stereoselectively interact with enantiomers. This review evaluates the new techniques and compares them to enantioselective HPLC and CE. Further, it describes the various concepts of enantioselective CEC and focuses on the current ‘state-of-the-art' column technology.     

Instrumentation for capillary electrochromatography

One of the reasons for the immense interest in capillary electrochromatography (CEC) is its feature to combine chromatographic selectivity with the high efficiency and the miniaturization potential of capillary electrophoresis (CE). The capability of commercial CE instruments to run CEC has enforced the readiness of users and researchers to work on this separation technique. Nevertheless, to fully exploit the potential of CEC, a routine CE device can certainly not fulfill all requirements. Two different approaches have been made to overcome this problem. The first was to modify commercial CE instruments for various demands. Pressurization of the packed capillary to prevent "air" bubble formation, gradient elution capabilities and thermostating devices allowing a greater flexibility in column designs have been implemented in CE instruments of several manufacturers. A completely different approach is the development of modular laboratory-made instrumentation dedicated to special CEC requirements. In order to increase mobile phase velocity and thus the speed of analysis the availability of voltages higher than 30 kV was accomplished in some of these devices. Gradient elution was achieved by either coupling of gradient LC systems or an electroosmotic generation of the changing eluent composition. When a pressure gradient is applied between both column ends in addition to the voltage gradient, a hybrid between capillary HPLC and CEC results. This chromatographic mode is named pressure-assisted electrochromatography (PEC). Either CE instruments equipped with additional HPLC pumps or modular laboratory-made devices are suitable for PEC. In CEC, sensitivity for UV detection is rather poor due to the short optical path length for on-column detection in capillary separation techniques. A special cell design with enhanced light path is presented and further principles like, e.g., fluorescence detection and coupling to mass spectrometry are discussed.     

使用含离子涂层柱的毛细管电泳和毛细管电色谱的研究进展

 毛细管电色谱是近年发展起来的高效、高选择性的微分离技术。与一般的毛细管电泳和使用ODS反相填料的毛细管电色谱相比 ,含离子涂层柱的毛细管电泳和毛细管电色谱能提供较大且可控的电渗流 ,便于拓宽分离对象 ,优化分离条件。对使用含离子涂层柱的毛细管电泳和电色谱的特点、发展和应用状况进行了综述。     

Computer simulation for the convenient optimization of isocratic reversed-phase liquid chromatographic separations by varying temperature and mobile phase strength

The review summarizes the most recent developments in the field of enantioseparation of chiral drugs using capillary electromigration techniques. The basic principles of enantioseparations in CE are discussed. Recent developments in sample introduction, separation and detection in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography are summarized. The applications are arbitrarily divided into the following three groups: (a) racemates and artificial mixtures of enantiomers, (b) drug forms and (c) chiral drugs and their metabolites in biological fluids. Among the various techniques involved the relatively new developments such as CEC in aqueous and nonaqueous buffers, on-line CE-MS coupling, etc. are emphasized.     

毛细管电色谱和加压毛细管电色谱的进展与应用

毛细管电色谱(CEC)以内含色谱固定相的毛细管为分离柱,以电渗流为驱动力,既可以分离带电物质也可以分离中性物质。它结合了毛细管电泳和高效液相色谱两者的优点,兼具高柱效、高分辨率、高选择性和高峰容量的特点,同时具有色谱和电泳的双重分离机理。然而,“纯粹”的电色谱在实际应用中有着天然的弱点,即: 在电流通过毛细管柱中的流动相时容易产生气泡(焦耳热作用),从而使电流中断和电渗流停止,毛细管柱必须被重新用流动相润湿后方能再次使用。加压毛细管电色谱(pCEC)将液相色谱中的压力流引入CEC系统中,不仅解决了气泡、干柱等问题,而且实现了定量阀进样和二元梯度洗脱。CEC和pCEC作为微分离领域的两种前沿技术,满足了当前复杂样品分析和分析仪器微型化的需求,近年来获得了广泛的关注。本文综述了这两种技术近来的发展,包括仪器、色谱固定相的发展,总结了其在生命科学、药物分析、食品安全以及环保样品分析等方面的应用进展,评述了各方法的特点,并展望了CEC和pCEC今后的发展和应用前景。     

Recent advances in capillary electrophoresis/electrospray-mass spectrometry

In this review, the progress in hyphenation of capillary electrophoresis (CE) with electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) since the article of Banks (Banks, J. F., Electrophoresis 1997, 18, 2255-2266) is reported. In all capillary-based electromigration techniques, such as capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE), capillary isotachophoresis (CITP), capillary isoelectric focussing (CIEF), micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE), as well as in the hybrid techniques capillary electrochromatography (CEC), and pressurized capillary electrochromatography (pCEC) progress has been made in experimental setups, and for many groups of analytes, such as peptides, proteins, nucleotides, saccharides, drugs and their metabolites, CE/ESI-MS has been successfully applied. Electromigration is further miniaturized. New preconcentration methods allow the investigation of compounds, which are not sensitively detected with ESI-MS. Coordination ion spray (CIS) MS is another method for sensitivity enhancement by on-line formation of charged coordination compounds.     

Recent advances in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography of pollutants

Recent advances in capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) separation, detection and sample preparation methodologies applied for the determination of a variety of pollutants is overviewed. The reviewed literature illustrates the wide range of CE applications, indicating the continuing interest in CE and CEC in the environmental field.     

CEC for Studying the Retention and Separation of Pesticides on a Humic Acid Stationary Phase

A humic acid stationary phase is evaluated for studying by capillary electrochromatography (CEC) the binding of four pesticides with humic acid (HA), the main organic component in soil. It was demonstrated that the humic acid capillary was stable in terms of efficiency and retention during a long period of time. It appeared that HA has a lower affinity for neutral than for charged pesticides. The influence of the mobile phase constitution on the pesticide retention was also investigated in order to provide valuable information about the binding mechanism. The results suggest that the interactions of the pesticides during CEC are solely based on chromatographic mechanisms and that electrophoresis only plays a minor role. As well, it was shown that the HA stationary phase was able to separate these pesticides by CEC with a low analysis time. This HA capillary column could soon become attractive to determining the risk assessment of pesticides.     

聚多巴胺表面修饰毛细管电色谱的研究进展

毛细管电泳（CE）具有分离时间短、分离效率高、样品消耗量低等优点,在分离分析领域有着重要应用。原始的未修饰熔融石英毛细管只能提供阴极流向的电渗流和单一的电泳分离机制,分离性能有限,重复性较差,不能满足各类复杂样品体系尤其是中性和手性样品的分离需求。因此,有必要在CE中引入各类毛细管修饰策略,以拓展其实际应用潜力。贻贝仿生聚多巴胺（PDA）及其衍生材料因其简便易行的制备过程、优异的表面黏附性、良好的生物相容性、较强的二次反应活性和化学稳定性等优点,在催化、传感、水处理、样品前处理、生物医药以及CE分离等领域得到了广泛应用。PDA涂层的制备过程与物理吸附涂层一样简便,而表面黏附涂层的稳定性又可与共价键合涂层相媲美,因此非常适用于石英毛细管柱的修饰。更重要的是,PDA涂层较强的二次反应活性使其可作为反应平台进行灵活多样的二次表面修饰,便于构建多功能PDA涂层毛细管电色谱（CEC）固定相。基于这些突出优点,PDA涂层材料在CEC中的巨大应用价值逐渐得到了研究者们的广泛关注。该文首先对近3年有关PDA形成机理及PDA快速沉积表面化学的最新研究进展进行了总结,在此基础上综述了近10年PDA涂层材料在开管毛细管电色谱（OT-CEC）和毛细管电色谱整体柱中的最新应用。此外,还对PDA涂层材料在CEC中的发展方向进行了展望。