Electrochemical sensing in microfluidic systems using electrogenerated chemiluminescence as a photonic reporter of redox reactions

This paper describes a microfluidics-based sensing system that relies on electrochemical detection and electrogenerated chemiluminescent (ECL) reporting. The important result is that the ECL reporting reaction is chemically decoupled from the electrochemical sensing reaction. That is, the electrochemical sensing reaction does not participate directly in the ECL process, but because electrochemical cells require charge balance, the sensing and ECL reactions are electrically coupled. This provides a convenient and sensitive means for direct photonic readout of electrochemical reactions that do not directly participate in an ECL reaction and thus broadens the spectrum of redox compounds that can be detected by ECL. The approach can be implemented in either a two-electrode or bipolar (single-electrode) configuration. By manipulating the placement and dimensions of the conductors, the photonic response can be enhanced. The system is used to electrochemically detect benzyl viologen present in solution and report its presence via Ru(bpy)(3)(2+) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) luminescence.     

Electroenzymatic oxidation of polyaromatic hydrocarbons using chemical redox mediators in organic media

The bioelectrochemical oxidation of two polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH): anthracene (ANT) and pyrene (PYR), using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) resulting in the synthesis of photoactive polyaromatic quinones in organic media was studied. The electrochemical generation of hydrogen peroxide was compared with its direct addition in concentrations of up to 0.0012 mol L⁻¹. In addition, three different chemical redox mediators were evaluated: ABTS, thionin and ortho-aminophenol. In a reaction medium containing 30% acetone and ABTS as mediator with a molar ratio mediator/PAH of 1:10, HRP attained the highest level of oxidation of PAH (1 × 10⁻³ mol L⁻¹): ANT (94%) and PYR (91%), producing 9,10-anthraquinone and mainly 1,2 and 4,5-pyrenequinones, respectively.     

Investigation of nonsolvated electron reactions by means of the positron annihilation method

The validity of a model developed by us in which the positronium precursor is mainly the nonsolvated electron makes it possible to study the reactivity of nonsolvated electrons using data on positronium formation probabilities in solutions of electron acceptors. The rate constants thus obtained agree in most cases with those determined with picosecond pulse radiolysis techniques.     

Glucose sensing by electrogenerated chemiluminescence of glucose-dehydrogenase produced NADH on electrodeposited redox hydrogel

In this work, we report a new sensing approach based on electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) in an electrodeposited redox hydrogel using glucose dehydrogenase as a model system. The ECL-hydrogel films were electrodeposited by potential cycling of a PBS solution containing [poly(4-vinylpyridine)Ru(2,2'-bipyridine)(2)Cl(-)](+/2+). The film was easily prepared in a rapid, reproducible and well-controlled one-step procedure. The deposited hydrogel film is permeable to water-soluble chemicals and biochemicals, like enzyme substrates and coenzymes. Electrochemistry and ECL of NADH were studied at the level of the hydrogel film. Results indicate that ECL emission occurs at a relatively low anodic potential compared to the classical Ru(bipy)(3)(2+) complex. This is an important advantage since the measurements performed with the ECL hydrogel are thus less sensitive to interfering species. An ECL oxidative-reductive mechanism is presented for the ECL-hydrogel. Then we showed that the intensity of the ECL of NADH produced by the enzymatic activity varies with the enzyme substrate concentration. Such sensing approach combines enzymatic selectivity with the ECL advantages at low oxidation potential.     

Investigation of gas-solid reactions by means of thermal analysis/mass spectrometry

During the production of powder-metallurgical and ceramic materials the evolution of gaseous reaction products can result in large structural imperfections. Reaction sintering of titanium aluminides from mixtures of elemental powders can be accompanied by swelling effects combined with considerable volume swelling of the sintered parts [1]. The firing of thick-film pastes containing ruthenium oxide on substrates of AlN ceramics entails the formation of bubbles impairing the function of thick film resistors [2]. These investigations contribute to the clarification of the causes of both phenomena.     

Selective Electroenzymatic Oxyfunctionalization by Alkane Monooxygenase in a Biofuel Cell

Aliphatic synthetic intermediates with high added value are generally produced from alkane sources (e.g., petroleum) by inert carbon–hydrogen (C?H) bond activation using classical chemical methods (i.e. high temperature, rare metals). As an alternative approach for these reactions, alkane monooxygenase from Pseudomonas putida (alkB) is able to catalyze the difficult terminal oxyfunctionalization of alkanes selectively and under mild conditions. Herein, we report an electrosynthetic system using an alkB biocathode which produces alcohols, epoxides, and sulfoxides through bioelectrochemical hydroxylation, epoxidation, sulfoxidation, and demethylation. The capacity of the alkB binding pocket to protect internal functional groups is also demonstrated. By coupling our alkB biocathode with a hydrogenase bioanode and using H₂ as a clean fuel source, we have developed and characterized a series of enzymatic fuel cells capable of oxyfunctionalization while simultaneously producing electricity.     

Investigation of thermal decomposition reactions by means of thermal analysis and dielectric constant measurement

Dielectric constant measurements as a function of temperature and thermal analysis were performed in copper sulphate pentahydrate and sodium nitrite to study the nature of the decomposition reactions. The application of these combined techniques to the study of several possible mechanisms of thermal decomposition is advanced.     

Photochromic and reductive electrochemical switching of a dithiazolylethene with large redox modulation

A new dipyridylthiazolylethene (1a) and its dicationic analogue (2a), with two N-methylated pyridyl rings, have been synthesized and structurally characterized. Due to the N-methylation of the pyridyl rings, 2 a displays not only very different photochromic properties, but also undergoes a reductive ring-closing reaction to generate its closed-ring isomer 2b. Careful electrochemical studies coupled with EPR spectroscopy show that this reductive ring-closing reaction takes place when 2a is two-electron reduced. DFT calculations suggest that such a ground-state electrocyclization is driven by a very large stabilization of the reduced closed-ring isomer 2b relative to the reduced open-ring isomer 2a. In addition, 2b exhibits two successive and reversible one-electron reductions at half-wave potentials of 0.04 and -0.14 V versus SCE and a redox modulation as large as 1 V is achieved when passing from 2a to 2b.     

Investigation of some biologically relevant redox reactions using electrochemical mass spectrometry interfaced by desorption electrospray ionization

Recently we have shown that, as a versatile ionization technique, desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) can serve as a useful interface to combine electrochemistry (EC) with mass spectrometry (MS). In this study, the EC/DESI-MS method has been further applied to investigate some aqueous phase redox reactions of biological significance, including the reduction of peptide disulfide bonds and nitroaromatics as well as the oxidation of phenothiazines. It was found that knotted/enclosed disulfide bonds in the peptides apamin and endothelin could be electrochemically cleaved. Subsequent tandem MS analysis of the resulting reduced peptide ions using collision-induced dissociation (CID) and electron-capture dissociation (ECD) gave rise to extensive fragment ions, providing a fast protocol for sequencing peptides with complicated disulfide bond linkages. Flunitrazepam and clonazepam, a class of nitroaromatic drugs, are known to undergo reduction into amines which was proposed to involve nitroso and N-hydroxyl intermediates. Now in this study, these corresponding intermediate ions were successfully intercepted and their structures were confirmed by CID. This provides mass spectrometric evidence for the mechanism of the nitro to amine conversion process during nitroreduction, an important redox reaction involved in carcinogenesis. In addition, the well-known oxidation reaction of chlorpromazine was also examined. The putative transient one-electron transfer product, the chlorpromazine radical cation (m/z 318), was captured by MS, for the first time, and its structure was also verified by CID. In addition to these observations, some features of the DESI-interfaced electrochemical mass spectrometry were discussed, such as simple instrumentation and the lack of background signal. These results further demonstrate the feasibility of EC/DESI-MS for the study of the biology-relevant redox chemistry and would find applications in proteomics and drug development research.     

Conformational control of molecular tweezers containing a disulfide bond by redox reactions

Molecular tweezers 1b having two alkyl thiol chains were prepared. Intramolecular cyclization of the thiols under oxidative conditions afforded tweezers 2b containing a disulfide bond. X-ray crystal analysis and temperature dependent ¹H NMR spectra analysis revealed that the structure of 1b has a stepped anti arrangement of the three aromatic rings, although that of 2b adopted a cleft conformation because of the intramolecular interaction between the alkyl chain and the terminal naphthalene rings. The thiol-disulfide redox reaction proceeded smoothly and reversibly to control the conformation of the tweezers.     

Stereocontrolled intramolecular ketone-olefin reductive coupling reactions promoted by samarium diiodide

The stereocontrolled intramolecular coupling of unsaturated β-ketoesters and β-ketoamides is reported. Good yields of highly substituted β-hydroxycyclopentanecarboxylates are generated in the process, with substantial and predictable stereochemical control at three contiguous stereocenters.     

Investigation of the structure of solution grown crystals of lactide copolymers by means of chemical reactions

Summary Lactide copolymers consisting of L- and DL-lactide were prepared and crystallized from solution and from melt. Crystallization from solution yielded single crystals, which were examined by electron microscopy, X-ray small angle scattering and DSC. The single crystals were treated with dilute sodium hydroxide in order to obtain a selective cleavage of the ester bonds in the disordered regions. Electron microscopy, GPC and X-ray small angle scattering were applied for proving the selectivity of the hydrolysis. The comparison of the rotatory strength of the copolymers before and after hydrolysis shows that the D-units are partially included into the L-lactide lattice. The distribution of the D-units between crystalline and amorphous phase depends strongly on the supercooling. Hydrolysis of spherulitic foils under similar conditions yields no selective reaction. In this case the centers of the spherulites are degraded selectively.

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Zusammenfassung Die Synthese von Copolylactiden aus L- und D,L-Lactid und die Kristallisation der Copolymeren aus Lösung und aus der Schmelze werden beschrieben. Die durch Lösungskristallisation erhaltenen Einkristalle wurden mit Hilfe der Elektronenmikroskopie, der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung und differentialthermoanalytisch (DSC) charakterisiert. Durch Behandeln mit verdünnter Natronlauge wurden die Esterbindungen in den ungeordneten Bereichen der Einkristalle selektiv gespalten. Die Selektivität der Hydrolyse wurde mit Hilfe der Gelchromatographie, der Elektronenmikroskopie und mit der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung überprüft. Durch Vergleich der optischen Drehwerte der Copolymeren vor und nach der Hydrolyse der fehlgeordneten Bereiche ergibt sich, daß die D-Einheiten teilweise in das Gitter der L-Einheiten eingebaut werden. Die Verteilung der D-Einheiten zwischen kristalliner und amorpher Phase hängt vom Grad der Unterkühlung bei der Kristallisation ab. Hydrolyse von sphärolithisch kristallisierten Folien unter ähnlichen Bedingungen ergibt keinen selektiven Abbau der fehlgeordneten Bereiche. In diesem Fall werden jedoch die Zentren der Sphärolithe bevorzugt angegriffen.

     

Charge transfer reactions along a supramolecular redox gradient

A rotaxane scaffold is used to align three photo/electroactive units along a supramolecular redox gradient leading to a cascade of through-space charge transfer reactions.     

Electrochemical approach to the dynamics of molecular recognition of redox enzyme sites by artificial cosubstrates in solution and in integrated systems

Application of antigen-antibody technology allows the attachment to an electrode surface of an enzyme monolayer structure to which both the enzyme and the mediator are bound. As illustrated with the example of glucose oxidase and a ferrocene mediator, the enzyme preserves its full activity in such structures, which may be easily reproduced. In spite of their fixation to the structure, the mobility of the ferrocene heads is sufficient to ensure that its transport to the enzyme prosthetic group is not rate determining. The reaction is rather controlled by the prior formation of a complex between the ferrocenium ion and the flavin required for electron transfer to occur. The efficiency of this step is affected by steric hindrance and the various observations made with free-moving and attached ferrocene-ended poly(ethylene glycol) chains may be rationalized by the interplay of factors controlling their distribution and shape. Analyzing the dynamics of this system, in comparison with previous systems, was thus an occasion to shed further light on the recognition phenomenon. The enzyme monolayer integrated system is a good starting point for the step-by-step construction of spatially ordered multilayered assemblies with strong catalytic efficiencies. Fast responding systems are expected both in terms of electron transport and electron transfer between the mediator and the enzyme. The spatial order resulting from the step-by-step construction should allow a much more precise analysis of electron transport and electron transfer than in conventional assemblies of redox centers. Mastering both the construction and the functioning of such systems should help the design of more complex systems, integrating additional functionalities electrically controlled by means of their electron transport/electron transfer connection to the electrode surface.     

Organocuprate reactions of enone lactones. II. Regiochemical effect on reductive cleavage.

The course of organocuprate conjugate addition and reduction in cyclohexenones made conformationally rigid by attachment of a 1,3-lactone is shown to depend on the regiochemistry of such enones.     

Synthesis based on electrogenerated carbenes Communication 1. Some reactions with the participation of dichlorocarbene

Conclusions The dichlorocarbene generated by the electrolysis of CCl₄, enters into reactions with organic substrates of varying nature under mild conditions and with high selectivity, the reactions are characteristic of dichlorocarbene.Translated from Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Khimicheskaya, No. 1, pp. 91–95, January, 1988.     

Electrocatalysis of redox reactions by metal nanoparticles on graphite electrodes

A selection of graphitic materials of both scientific as well as commercial importance has been modified by deposition of various metals at very low coverages under overpotential or underpotential conditions. Nanoparticles were found with some metals. The changes in the electrocatalytic activity of the supporting electrode by the metal modification were studied using electrochemical impedance measurements of a fast redox system. The carbon/solution interface was characterized with surface Raman spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance measurements, and cyclic voltammetry. Electronic Publication