THE EFFECT OF CHANGES OR DIFFERENCES IN ROBERTSON-BERGER RADIOMETER RESPONSIVITY ON SOLAR ULTRAVIOLET-B MEASUREMENT

Two long-term solar UV measurement campaigns, in the USA and in Austria, using Robertson-Berger radiometers found opposite trends for measured levels of ultraviolet-B radiation reaching the earth's surface. This could be a consequence of the method used to calibrate the radiometers. Changes or differences in responsivity were compensated for by adjusting the sensitivity of the field radiometers to match the output of a reference radiometer.
This radiometer intercomparison procedure has been evaluated in terms of the normalization wavelength to which the Robertson-Berger effective irradiance refers. There are small differences in spectral responsivities apparent in the radiometers used in the USA campaign, which require the field radiometers to be normalized at different wavelengths to match the response of the reference radiometer. This normalization wavelength is shown to depend on the time-averaged spectrum experienced by the instruments during the intercomparison. As a result there are substantial interradiometer variations in their calculated response to solar radiation when the measured spectral distribution is different from the spectrum used for the radiometer intercomparison procedure.     

Ozone and UV radiation over southern South America: climatology and anomalies

Ozone and UV radiation were analyzed at eight stations from tropical to sub-Antarctic regions in South America. Ground UV irradiances were measured by multichannel radiometers as part of the Inter American Institute for Global Change Radiation network. The irradiance channels used for this study were centered at 305 nm (for UV-B measurements) and 340 nm (for UV-A measurements). Results were presented as daily maximum irradiances, as monthly averaged, daily integrated irradiances and as the ratio of 305 nm to 340 nm. These findings are the first to be based on a long time series of semispectral data from the southern region of South America. As expected, the UV-B channel and total column ozone varied with latitude. The pattern of the UV-A channel was more complex because of local atmospheric conditions. Total column ozone levels of < 220 Dobson Units were observed at all sites. Analysis of autocorrelations showed a larger persistence of total column ozone level than irradiance. A decreasing cross-correlation coefficient between 305 and 340 nm and an increasing cross-correlation coefficient between 305 nm and ozone were observed at higher latitudes, indicating that factors such as cloud cover tend to dominate at northern sites and that ozone levels tend to dominate at southern sites. These results highlight the value of long-term monitoring of radiation with multichannel radiometers to determine climatological data and evaluate the combination of factors affecting ground UV radiation.     

How realistically does outdoor UV-B supplementation with lamps reflect ozone depletion: an assessment of enhancement errors

Limitations in the realism of currently available lamps mean that enhancement errors in outdoor experiments simulating UV-B radiation effects of stratospheric ozone depletion can be large. Here, we assess the magnitude of such errors at two Finnish locations, during May and June, under three cloud conditions. First we simulated solar radiation spectra for normal, compared with 10% and 20% ozone depletion, and convoluted the daily integrated solar spectra with eight biological spectral weighting functions (BSWFs) of relevance to effects of UV on plants. We also convoluted a measured spectrum from cellulose-acetate filtered UV-B lamps with the same eight BSWFs. From these intermediate results we calculated the enhancement errors. Differences between locations and months were small, cloudiness had only a minor effect. This assessment was based on the assumption that no extra enhancement compensating for shading of UV radiation by lamp frames is performed. Under this assumption errors between spectra are due to differences in the UV-B effectiveness rather than differences in the UV-A effectiveness. Hence, conclusions about plant growth from past UV-supplementation experiments should be valid. However, interpretation of the response of individual physiological processes is less secure, so results from some field experiments with lamps might need reassessment.     

Plant responses to current solar ultraviolet-B radiation and to supplemented solar ultraviolet-B radiation simulating ozone depletion: an experimental comparison

Field experiments assessing UV-B effects on plants have been conducted using two contrasting techniques: supplementation of solar UV-B with radiation from fluorescent UV lamps and the exclusion of solar UV-B with filters. We compared these two approaches by growing lettuce and oat simultaneously under three conditions: UV-B exclusion, near-ambient UV-B (control) and UV-B supplementation (simulating a 30% ozone depletion). This permitted computation of "solar UV-B" and "supplemental UV-B" effects. Microclimate and photosynthetically active radiation were the same under the two treatments and the control. Excluding UV-B changed total UV-B radiation more than did supplementing UV-B, but the UV-B supplementation contained more "biologically effective" shortwave radiation. For oat, solar UV-B had a greater effect than supplemental UV-B on main shoot leaf area and main shoot mass, but supplemental UV-B had a greater effect on leaf and tiller number and UV-B-absorbing compounds. For lettuce, growth and stomatal density generally responded similarly to both solar UV-B and supplemented UV-B radiation, but UV-absorbing compounds responded more to supplemental UV-B, as in oat. Because of the marked spectral differences between the techniques, experiments using UV-B exclusion are most suited to assessing effects of present-day UV-B radiation, whereas UV-B supplementation experiments are most appropriate for addressing the ozone depletion issue.     

Erythemal Ultraviolet Insolation in New Zealand at Solar Zenith Angles of 30° and 45°

Solar UV radiometers with spectral responsivities that are close to the erythemaVcarcinogenic action spectrum of skin have been installed at several centers of population in New Zealand, including Auckland, 37°S, Wellington, 41°s and Christchurch, 43.5°S. The data set covers the period from the time the radiometry program commenced in 1988/1989 to the end of the southern summer, March 1995. The radiometers were recalibrated annually and the data were corrected for changes in the absolute responsivity of the radiometers. Erythemally effective UV irradiances at solar zenith angles of 30° and 45° were then extracted from the data set. No monotonic trend in these data is apparent, although there are statistically significant differences in mean irradiances from one year to the next. An example of this is the decrease observed in all sites following the Mt. Pinatubo eruption in June 1991. The maximum erythemally effective insolations at solar zenith angles of 30° and 45° were consistently lower in Christchurch than in the other two New Zealand sites. This could arise from higher levels of atmospheric turbidity andlor tropospheric ozone at this location. Also, a seasonal increase in erythemally effective UV insolation from spring to autumn was observed each year in all three New Zealand sites.     

USE OF REGRESSION ANALYSIS TO ESTIMATE UV SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE FROM BROAD BAND RADIOMETER READINGS UNDER FS-40 FLUORESCENT SUNLAMPS FILTERED WITH CELLULOSE ACETATE

Abstract— Weighted and unweighted UV spectral irradiances were measured under a 2-lamp fluorescent fixture containing Westinghouse FS-40 fluorescent sunlamps filtered with (6 h aged) 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) cellulose acetate by use of newly developed broadband UV radiometers and an automated UV spectro-radiometer. Measurements were taken at 10-cm intervals between 20 and 110 cm from the lamps. Correlations were determined between sets of data measured with the broadband radiometers and the UV spectroradiometer.
By use of linear regression analyses on the weighted and unweighted spectral data, regression equations were developed for predicting UV-B irradiance (unweighted mWm-²), biologically effective UV (BUV) (weighted mWm) in the 280–320 nm (UV-B) region, UV-B sun equivalents, and incident flux density in the UV-B region in photons m-²× 10²¹ integrated over a 6-h exposure. Examination of the correlation coefficients ( r values) indicated that agreement was excellent between measured and predicted values for all comparisons (r values from 0.9972 to 0.9998).
Use of regression equations should permit accurate. rapid estimation of both weighted and unweighted UV irradiances at any location in an experimental set-up and provide a useful means for intra- and inter-laboratory comparisons of spectral measurements, made in the interagency BACER program under FS-40 fluorescent sunlamps filtered with 0.127 mm cellulose acetate (aged for 6h).     

Coupling short-term changes in ambient UV-B levels with induction of UV-screening compounds

A substantial number of studies have been conducted over the last several decades to assess the potential impacts of long-term increases in ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B between 280 and 320 nm) that will result from continued depletion of stratospheric ozone. However, seasonal changes, tropospheric chemistry and cloudiness are the dominant factors controlling ambient UV-B levels on a short-term or daily basis. The effects of short-term changes in UV-B on plant growth, phytochemistry and physiological processes have received relatively little attention. The USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program provides an excellent network of stations that provide an opportunity to monitor long-term changes in solar UV-B radiation and evaluate the responses of plants to short-term variation in UV-B levels on a near-real-time basis. In this study barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and soybean (Glycine max [L] Merr.) were used as model systems. Emerging seedlings of these species were grown under either near-ambient levels of UV-B or under reduced levels (ca 90% reduction) in the field. Periodic measurements of foliar UV-screening compounds were made on separate groups of seedlings planted at intervals over the growing season during contrasting periods of ambient levels of UV radiation. The levels of UV-screening compounds correlated with UV-B levels in both species and with UV-A in soybean but the sensitivity of the response differed between the two species and among the soybean cultivars. Response differences among species may be related to unique secondary chemistry of each species, so one response estimate or action spectrum may not be appropriate for all species.     

Spectral Mismatch Effect of Ultraviolet Radiometers in Actual UV-C Measurement

The management of radiant exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, especially in the wavelength range from 100 nm to 280 nm (i.e. UV-C), is important for virus inactivation or photobiological safety. Recently, many commercial UV radiometers have been used to measure UV-C irradiance for industrial and public applications. The accuracy of the four types of commercial UV radiometers was investigated by comparing the reference irradiance values obtained from the spectral irradiance standard. It was found that the displayed values of the UV radiometers have discrepancies, such that the measured value can be more than twice the actual value in a certain case. The spectral mismatch between the calibration and test sources is a major factor in the discrepancies in the UV-C measurements. With spectral mismatch correction, most corrected values show a tendency to improve the result to approaching the reference values within 20%. Users need to provide spectral information about the source and radiometer used for UV-C measurement.     

Interannual variability in solar ultraviolet irradiance over decadal time scales at latitude 55 degrees south.

Ground-based measurements of solar UV spectral irradiance made from Ushuaia, Argentina at latitude 55 degrees S reveal a large degree of variability among corresponding months of different years over the period from September 1990 through April 1998. The magnitude and wavelength dependence of year-to-year changes in monthly spectral UV-B irradiation are consistent with expectations based on the behavior of column ozone and cloudiness. When combined with satellite measurements of column ozone, a regression model fit to the ground-based data set allows estimates of monthly UV-B irradiation over a time frame of two decades, 1978-1998, during several months of the year. Results show a general increase in ground-level irradiation at 305.0 nm from the end of the 1970s to the early 1990s during calendar months from September through December. This is followed by generally smaller irradiances through the middle to late 1990s for all months except November, where the increase continues through the end of the data record. The long-term variability in monthly irradiation over the time period studied is more complicated than can be described by a simple linear trend.     

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF UV-B RADIATION ON MARINE ORGANISMS OF THE SOUTHERN OCEAN: DISTRIBUTIONS OF PHYTOPLANKTON AND KRILL DURING AUSTRAL SPRING

Increases in UV-B radiation resulting from ozone depletion during austral spring could potentially alter the balance of the Southern Ocean marine ecosystem. A quantitative assessment ol the effects of UV-B enhancement requires knowledge of (1) the wavelength-dependent fluxes of UV-B in the upper ocean, (2) action spectra for UV-B damage to Antarctic phytoplankton and zooplankton, and (3) depth-dependent distributions and residence times of Southern Ocean phytoplankton and zooplankton during austral spring. Unfortunately, only limited data arc currently available to address this impact directly. To provide some of the information required for such an assessment, available data regarding plankton distributions and their photophysiological characteristics have been summarized. A preliminary assessment of the available literature suggests that Antarctic phytoplankton and krill receive very low doses of UV-B during austral spring. The high spectral attenuation coefficients associated with the environments in which most plankton arc found during springtime precludes the possibility of UV damage. Future research directions are described which should provide a better understanding of the ecological consequences of the "ozone hole" which resides over the Antarctic continent during austral spring.     

The role of the spectral sensitivity curve in the selection of relevant biological dosimeters for solar UV monitoring

To estimate the risk of enhanced UV-B radiation due to stratospheric ozone depletion, phage T7 and uracil thin-layer biological dosimeters have been developed, which weight the UV irradiance according to induced DNA damage. To study the molecular basis of the biological effects observed after UV irradiation, the spectral sensitivity curves of the two dosimeters and induction of the two major DNA photoproducts, cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and 6-4 photoproducts ((6-4)PDs), in phage T7 have been determined for polychromatic UV sources. CPDs and (6-4)PDs are determined by lesion-specific monoclonal antibodies in an immunodotblot assay. Phage T7 and uracil biological dosimeters together with a Robertson-Berger (RB) meter have been used for monitoring environmental radiation from the polar region to the equator. The biologically effective dose (BED) established with the three different dosimeters increases according to the changes in the solar angle and ozone column, but the degree of the change differs significantly. The results can be explained based on the different spectral sensitivities of the dosimeters. A possible method for determining the trend of the increase in the biological risk due to ozone depletion is suggested.     

Simplified calibration for broadband solar ultraviolet radiation measurements

Aspects of different calibration procedures for erythemally weighing broadband radiometers are presented in this study. These instruments are common in projects dealing with ultraviolet radiation effects on humans. Many erythemally weighing broadband radiometers are still operated using a single calibration factor (cf) that is provided with the instrument. The individual characteristics of every instrument are strongly dependent on the total ozone amount and the solar elevation. Therefore, a calibration procedure also has to take into account the ozone concentrations and the solar elevation to compensate for the effects of the individual characteristics and to provide comparable measurements. Given the variation of the ozone concentrations and the solar elevation, an individual cf has to be calculated for every measurement. Using a simplified version of the calibration procedure, which is presented in this study, can lessen this effort. Taking into account the relevant meteorological conditions for a measuring site, a single cf is calculated to compensate the individual characteristics of the instruments and therefore deliver comparable measurements with less effort.     

New Entrance Optics for Solar Spectral UV Measurements

The investigation of the impact of solar UV radiation on the biosphere requires spectral measurements of solar UV radiation of high accuracy. However, the accuracy of current measurements is limited, and this can partly be attributed to the entrance optics of the instruments used for these examinations. The angular response of spectro-radiometers measuring spectral global UV irradiance should be given by the cosine of the incidence angle. In-tercomparison campaigns have shown that deviations from this ideal cosine response lead to uncertainties in solar measurements of more than 10%. Here we present recently developed entrance optics that reduce these uncertainties to ±4% in the UV. The new entrance optics have been characterized with respect to their angular response, transmission, weather durability, fluorescence and dependence of the angular response on wavelength and polarization. Solar spectroradiometric measurements carried out with the new optics were compared with simultaneously performed measurements of a second spectroradiometer that was equipped with a conventional diffuser. The deviations of up to 12% between both systems are quantitatively explained to within 3%.     

UV-induced changes in pigment content and light penetration in the fruticose lichen Cladonia arbuscula ssp. mitis

The response of the lichen, Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Flot. ssp. mitis (Sandst.) Ruoss to enhanced UV-B (280-315 nm) radiation was investigated with respect to: (a) changes in phenolic content; (b) differential pigment accumulation under visible and UV radiation with increasing distance from thallus apices; and (c) the internal distribution of UV-B radiation within the thallus measured with quartz optical fibres. In a short-term experiment, lichens were exposed for 7 days in a growth chamber to visible light with or without additional UV-B radiation. For a longer term experiment, lichens were grown outdoors under both natural UV radiation, and supplemental UV-A (315-400 nm)+UV-B provided by lamps. Controls were placed under filters that removed the radiation below 290 nm from the natural sunlight. The concentration of total phenolic compounds was measured spectrophotometrically at the termination of the experiments, in different parts of the lichen podetia. UV-exposed lichens showed increased accumulation of phenolics compared to those not grown under UV. At the termination of the long-term experiment, fibre optic measurements of the penetration of radiation into lichen thallus reflected the influence of growth under UV radiation, whereby UV was more strongly attenuated as compared to that in lichens not exposed to enhanced levels of UV-B radiation. Results indicated that in Cladonia, UV-B radiation induces the accumulation of phenolic compounds that may have a protective role. In addition, the morphological distribution of phenolic compounds was different under visible and supplemental UV-B radiation. Internal radiation measurements served to visualise the attenuation of radiation with thallus depth for different wavelengths in the UV-B waveband.     

STANDARDS FOR UV INSTRUMENTS AND RISK OF EXISTING DEVICES

Abstract— Different methods for measurements of UV-radiation of various light sources are quantitatively compared: direct measurements, based on detectors of known responsivity, as well as indirect measurements, based on a spectral irradiance calibration. The optical arrangement of an accurate spectroradiometric equipment, and the structure and parameters for a new type of cosine corrected detector for the measurement of actinic radiation are described, too. The measurements of actinic radiation with commercial devices are affected by great relative errors.
A standard for natural irradiance will allow a comparison of weighted irradiances and threshold irradiations with natural insolation and with artificial UV radiation. The risk of existing irradiation apparatuses will be calculable by this comparison.     

The European Light Dosimeter Network: four years of measurements

The European Light Dosimeter Network (ELDONET) has now been functional for more than four years. The network is based on dosimeters which measure radiation in three biologically relevant wavelength bands (UV-B, 280-315 nm; UV-A, 315-400 nm; and Photosynthetic Active Radiation, PAR, 400-700 nm). The ELDONET network is currently based on 33 stations with 40 instruments. The distribution of the instruments all over Europe allows measurement of the latitudinal and longitudinal light climate distribution. In addition, several instruments are active in South America, New Zealand, India, Africa and Japan. With some exceptions, the measured yearly doses depend on the latitude. While the maximal daily doses are almost comparable from station to station, seasonal changes and the different maximal solar zenith angles account for the differences in total yearly doses. Ratioing between UV-B and PAR allows the detection of subtle changes in the local light climate, due, for example, to mini-ozone holes encountered in northern Europe during spring. Comparison of satellite ozone data with terrestrial ELDONET measurements revealed an overall weak correlation between these data sets. However, local weather conditions, solar zenith angle and latitude as well as reflectivity (i.e. clouds and aerosol; satellite data) show a much stronger correlation to the doses received. The close relationship between the spectral sensitivity of the UV-B sensor used in the ELDONET dosimeter and the CIE erythemal action spectrum allows determination of the erythemal dose on the basis of the dosimeter readings.     

UV-B EFFECTS ON TERRESTRIAL PLANTS

The potential impacts of an increase in solar UV-B radiation reaching the Earth's surface due to stratospheric ozone depletion have been investigated by several research groups during the last 15 years. Much of this research has centered on the effects of plant growth and physiology under artificial UV-B irradiation supplied to plants in growth chambers or greenhouses. Since these artificial sources do not precisely match the solar spectrum and due to the wavelength dependency of photobiol-ogical processes, weighting functions, based on action spectra for specific responses, have been developed to assess the biological effectiveness of the irradiation sources and of predicted ozone depletion. Recent experiments have also utilized artificially produced ozone cuvettes to filter natural solar radiation and simulate an environment of reduced UV-B for comparative purposes. Overall, the effectiveness of UV-B varies both among species and among cultivars of a given species. Sensitive plants often exhibit reduced growth (plant height, dry weight, leaf area, etc.), photosynthetic activity and flowering. Competitive interactions may also be altered indirectly by differential growth responses. Photosynthetic activity may be reduced by direct effects on photosynthetic enzymes, metabolic pathways or indirectly through effects on photosynthetic pigments or stomatal function. The fluence response of these changes has yet to be clearly demonstrated in most cases. Plants sensitive to UV-B may also respond by accumulating UV-absorbing compounds in their outer tissue layers, which presumably protect sensitive targets from UV damage. Several key enzymes in the biosynthetic pathways of these compounds have been shown to be specifically induced by UV-B irradiation. Few studies have documented the effects of UV-B on total plant yield under field conditions. One notable exception is a 6-yr study with soybean demonstrating harvestable yield reductions under a simulated 25% ozone depletion. These effects are further modified by prevailing microclimatic conditions. Plants tend to be less sensitive to UV-B radiation under drought or mineral deficiency, while sensitivity increases under low levels of visible light. Further studies are needed to understand the mechanisms of UV-B effects and the interactions with present stresses and future projected changes in the environment.     

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION IN ANTARCTICA: INHIBITION OF PRIMARY PRODUCTION

With the seasonal formation of the ozone hole over Antarctica, there is much concern regarding the effects of increased solar UV-B radiation (280–320 nm) on the marine ecosystem in the Southern Ocean. In situ incubations of natural phytoplankton assemblages in antarctic waters indicate that under normal ozone conditions UV-B radiation is responsible for a loss of approximately 4.9% of primary production in the euphotic zone, whereas UV radiation with wavelengths between 320 and 360 nm causes a loss of approximately 6.2%. When combined with data on the action spectrum for photoinhibition by UV radiation, our data suggest that the enhanced fluence of UV-B radiation under a well-developed ozone hole (150 Dobson units) would decrease daily primary productivity by an additional amount of 3.8%. Calculations that take into consideration the extent and duration of low stratospheric ozone concentrations during September to November indicate that the decrease in total annual primary production in antarctic waters due to enhanced UV-B radiation would be 0.20%.     

Penetration of ultraviolet radiation in the marine environment. A review

UV radiation (UVR) is a significant ecological factor in the marine environment that can have important effects on planktonic organisms and dissolved organic matter (DOM). The penetration of UVR into the water column is likely to change in the near future due to interactions between global warming and ozone depletion. In this study we report underwater instruments employed for the measurement of UVR and we review data dealing with the depth of UVR penetration in different oceanic areas including the open ocean, Antarctic waters and coastal waters. We provide the 10% irradiance depth (Z10%) for UV-A and UV-B as well as for DNA damage effective dose (DNA), which we calculated from the values of diffuse attenuation coefficients or vertical profiles reported in the literature. We observe a clear distinction between open ocean (high Z10%, no variation in the ratio UV-B/UV-A), Antarctic waters (increase in the ratio UV-B/UV-A during ozone hole conditions) and coastal waters (low Z10%, no variation in the ratio UV-B/UV-A). These variations in the penetration of UVR could lead to differences in the relative importance of photobiological/photochemical processes. We also compare in this study the penetration of UV-B (unweighted and weighted by the Setlow action spectrum) and DNA damage effective dose.     

MIDDLE ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION REACHING THE OCEAN SURFACE*

Abstract— Direct measurements of the downwelling spectral irradiance in the middle UV (280–340 nm) have been made for a range of solar zenith angles (20°-70°). These measurements were made for a marine atmosphere at equatorial latitudes. We fit these data to two semi-empirical analytic representations, from which quantitative calculations of spectral irradiance in the middle UV incident at the ocean surface can be made. The formulae accommodate variation in wavelength, solar zenith angle, ozone thickness, aerosol thickness and surface albedo. Our purpose is to provide marine photobiologists and photochemists with a basis for estimating middle UV radiation levels reaching the ocean surface and the approximate changes caused by manmade alterations of the ozone layer.