Growth of undoped and Zn-doped GaN nanowires

Undoped and Zn-doped GaN nanowires were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and the effects of substrates, catalysts and precursors were studied. A high density of GaN nanowires was obtained. The diameter of GaN nanowires ranged from 20 nm to several hundreds of nm, and their length was about several tens of μm. The growth mechanism of GaN nanowires was discussed using a vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) model. Furthermore, room-temperature cathodoluminescence spectra of undoped and Zn-doped GaN nanowires showed emission peaks at 364 and 420 nm, respectively.     

HVPE growth of semi-polar (1 1 2¯ 2)GaN on GaN template (1 1 3)Si substrate

The hydride-vapour-phase-epitaxial (HVPE) growth of semi-polar (1 1 2¯ 2)GaN is attempted on a GaN template layer grown on a patterned (1 1 3) Si substrate. It is found that the chemical reaction between the GaN grown layer and the Si substrate during the growth is suppressed substantially by lowering the growth temperatures no higher than 900 °C. And the surface morphology is improved by decreasing the V/III ratio. It is shown that a 230-μm-thick (1 1 2¯ 2)GaN with smooth surface is obtained at a growth temperature of 870 °C with V/III of 14.     

MOVPE growth of InN films using 1,1-dimethylhydrazine as a nitrogen precursor

InN films have been successfully grown on sapphire substrates by MOVPE using trimethylindium (TMIn) and 1,1-dimethylhydrazine (DMHy) with N₂ carrier. DMHy is an advantageous precursor of N as it decomposes efficiently at relatively low temperature (T₅₀=420 °C) compatible with the InN growth. The reactor is specially designed so as to avoid parasitic reaction between TMIn and DMHy occurring at room temperature. The growth feature was studied by varying growth temperature, V/III ratio, TMIn flow and reactor pressure. The InN films were obtained at 500–570 °C and 60–200 Torr with a V/III ratio optimized to 100–200. The In droplets are seen on the grown surfaces, indicating an excess supply of TMIn. It is demonstrated that the InN films grows on the sapphire substrate in a single domain with an epitaxial relationship, [1 01¯ 0]_InN//[1 1 2¯ 0]_sapphire.     

Influence of growth temperature on the selective area MOVPE of InAs nanowires on GaAs (1 1 1) B using N2 carrier gas

The influence of temperature on selective area (SA) InAs nanowire growth was investigated for metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) using N₂ as the carrier gas and (1 1 1) B GaAs substrates. In contrast to the growth temperature range – below 600 °C – reported for hydrogen ambient, the optimal growth temperature between 650 and 700 °C was 100 K higher than the optimal ones for H₂ carrier gas. At these temperatures, nanowires with aspect ratios of about 80 and a symmetric hexagonal shape were obtained. The results found are attributed to the physical and chemical properties of the carrier gas.     

Fabrication of a freestanding GaN layer by direct growth on a ZnO template using hydride vapor phase epitaxy

A new hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE)-based approach for the fabrication of freestanding GaN (FS-GaN) substrates was investigated. For the direct formation of low-temperature GaN (LT-GaN) layers, the growth parameters were optimized: the polarity of ZnO, the growth temperature, and the V/III ratio. The FS-GaN layer was achieved by gas etching in an HVPE reactor. A fingerprint of Zn out-diffusion was detected in the photoluminescence measurements, especially for the thin (80 μm) FS-GaN film; however, a thicker film (400 μm) was effectively reduced by optimization of GaN growth.     

Characterizations of GaN film growth by ECR plasma chemical vapor deposition

The electron cyclotron resonance plasma-enhanced metalorganic chemical vapor deposition technology (ECR–MOPECVD) is adopted to grow GaN films on (0 0 0 1) α-Al₂O₃ substrate. The gas sources are pure N₂ and trimethylgallium (TMG). Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) and thermodynamic analysis of GaN growth are applied to understand the GaN growth process. The OES of ECR plasma shows that TMG is significantly dissociated in ECR plasma. Reactants N and Ga in the plasma, obtained easily under the self-heating condition, are essential for the GaN growth. They contribute to the realization of GaN film growth at a relatively low temperature. The thermodynamic study shows that the driving force for the GaN growth is high when N₂:TMG>1. Furthermore, higher N₂:TMG flow ratio makes the GaN growth easier. Finally, X-ray diffraction, photoluminescence, and atomic force microscope are applied to investigate crystal quality, morphology, and roughness of the GaN films. The results demonstrate that the ECR–MOPECVD technology is favorable for depositing GaN films at low temperatures.     

The effect of growth rate enhancement on the magnetic properties and microstructures of ac electrodeposited Co nanowires using non-symmetric reductive/oxidative voltage

Non-symmetric reductive/oxidative voltage was employed to electrodeposit the Co nanowires through the alumina barrier layer into porous aluminum oxide templates grown in oxalic acid. The minimum and maximum oxidative voltages were 12 and 18 V while the maximum difference between the oxidative and reductive voltage was 6 V. The effect of barrier layer modification on the growth rate of the Co nanowires during the electrodeposition procedure was studied. In order to investigate the effects of the non-symmetric electrodeposition voltage on the growth rate the wire's length, the saturation magnetization, the instantaneous and the rms current were measured. Different reductive/oxidative voltages enable us to fabricate electrodeposited nanowires with a wide variety of growth rates. Using same reductive voltage, reducing the oxidative voltage increased the growth rate. At the same reductive voltage (18 V), average growth rate was seen to increase 2.5 times, when the oxidative voltage reduces to 12 V from initially 18 V. The barrier layer thickness of the samples made with different non-symmetric reductive/oxidative deposition voltage was investigated through impedance measurement during the deposition procedure. Reducing the growth rate of deposition reduces the intensity of the (1 0 0) preferential direction of hcp phase thereby improving the magnetic properties. Manipulating the growth rate through non-symmetric electrodeposition enables us to fabricate the Co nanowires with coercivity ranging from 460 to 1850 Oe.     

Growth of hexagonal and cubic InN nanowires using MOCVD with different growth temperatures

We have performed a detailed investigation of the metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth and characterization of InN nanowires formed on Si(1 1 1) substrates under nitrogen rich conditions. The growth of InN nanowires has been demonstrated by using an ion beam sputtered (∼10 nm) Au seeding layer prior to the initiation of growth. We tried to vary the growth temperature and pressure in order to obtain an optimum growth condition for InN nanowires. The InN nanowires were grown on the Au+In solid solution droplets caused by annealing in a nitrogen ambient at 700 °C. By applying this technique, we have achieved the formation of InN nanowires that are relatively free of dislocations and stacking faults. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed wires with diameters of 90–200 nm and lengths varying between 3 and 5 μm. Hexagonal and cubic structure is verified by high resolution X-ray diffraction (HR-XRD) spectrum. Raman measurements show that these wurtzite InN nanowires have sharp peaks E₂ (high) at 491 cm⁻¹ and A₁ (LO) at 591 cm⁻¹.     

Nature of luminescence and strain in gallium nitride nanowires

Photo- and cathodo-luminescence measurements of a variable-diameter ensemble of GaN nanowires revealed a diameter-dependent, spectral emission distribution between 350 nm and 850 nm. Spectral analysis indicated that wires with a diameter less than 400 nm were dominated by a yellow luminescence with a weaker near UV/violet emission also present. Examination of this ensemble showed that there was a general trend in the ratio of near-UV-to-yellow emission intensities with increasing nanowire diameter. Additionally, a broad green emission appears in the nanowires with a diameter above approximately 200 nm. A calculation based on the nanoheteroepitaxy model indicates that this diameter represents a transitional thickness where strain is relieved by defect formation mechanisms with a characteristic green emission.     

The influence of indium on the growth of GaN from solution under high pressure

The influence of significant fraction (10–50 mole%) indium in liquid gallium on GaN crystallization from a ternary Ga–In–N solution was analyzed. Crystallization experiments of GaN on GaN-sapphire templates from Ga–In solutions, at 1350–1450 °C, with prior to the growth seed wetting at 1500 °C, and 1.0 GPa N₂ pressure, without solid GaN source showed faster growth of GaN on the seed (by a factor of 1.5–2) than using pure gallium solvent. Nevertheless the new grown crystals were morphologically unstable. The instability was reduced by decrease of the wetting temperature down to 1100 °C or by omitting the wetting procedure entirely, which indicated that GaN dissolves much faster in Ga–In melt than in pure Ga and that the unstable growth was caused most likely by complete dissolution of GaN template before the growth. It was observed that the crystals grown on bulk GaN substrates did not show morphological instability observed for GaN-sapphire templates. The influence of indium on thermodynamic and thermal properties of the investigated system is discussed.     

Hydride vapor phase epitaxy of GaN boules using high growth rates

The boule-like growth of GaN in a vertical AIXTRON HVPE reactor was studied. Extrinsic factors like properties of the starting substrate and fundamental growth parameters especially the vapor gas composition at the surface have crucial impact on the formation of inverse pyramidal defects. The partial pressure of GaCl strongly affects defect formation, in-plane strain, and crystalline quality. Optimized growth conditions resulted in growth rates of 300–500 μm/h. GaN layers with thicknesses of 2.6 and of 5.8 mm were grown at rates above 300 μm/h. The threading dislocation density reduces with an inverse proportionality to the GaN layer thickness. Thus, it is demonstrated that growth rates above 300 μm/h are promising for GaN boule growth.     

Fabrication and characterization of GaAs quantum well buried in AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure nanowires

We developed a growth method for forming a GaAs quantum well contained in an AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure nanowire using selective-area metal organic vapor phase epitaxy. To find the optimum growth condition of AlGaAs nanowires, we changed the growth temperature between 800 and 850 °C and found that best uniformity of the shape and the size was obtained near 800 °C but lateral growth of AlGaAs became larger, which resulted in a wide GaAs quantum well grown on the top (1 1 1)B facet of the AlGaAs nanowire. To form the GaAs quantum well with a reduced lateral size atop the AlGaAs nanowire, a GaAs core nanowire about 100 nm in diameter was grown before the AlGaAs growth, which reduced the lateral size of AlGaAs to roughly half compared with that without the GaAs core. Photoluminescence measurement at 4.2 K indicated spectral peaks of the GaAs quantum wells about 60 meV higher than the acceptor-related recombination emission peak of GaAs near 1.5 eV. The photoluminescence peak energy showed a blue shift of about 15 meV, from 1.546 to 1.560 eV, as the growth time of the GaAs quantum well was decreased from 8 to 3 s. Transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis of an AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure nanowire indicated a GaAs quantum well with a thickness of 5−20 nm buried along the 〈1 1 1〉 direction between the AlGaAs shells, showing a successful fabrication of the GaAs quantum well.     

Formation of GaN nanodots on Si (1 1 1) by droplet nitridation

GaN nanodots (NDs) are obtained by Ga metallic droplet formation on Si (1 1 1) substrates followed by their nitridation. The size and density of Ga droplets and GaN NDs can be controlled by varying the growth temperature within the range 514–640 °C. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) investigation of Ga droplets shows an increase in the average diameter with temperature. The average diameter of GaN NDs increases with growth temperature while their density decreases more than one order of magnitude. In addition, the formation of a GaN crystallite rough layer on Si, in-between NDs, indicates that a spreading mechanism takes place during the nitridation process. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) is used for the investigation of shape, crystalline quality and surface distribution of GaN dots. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results confirm that Ga droplets that are transformed into GaN NDs spread over the sample surface during nitridation.     

Ordered arrays of high-quality single-crystalline α-Si3N4 nanowires: Synthesis,properties and applications

Ordered arrays of high-quality single-crystalline α-Si₃N₄ nanowires (NWs) have been synthesized via thermal evaporation and detailed characteristics of the NWs have been analyzed by employing scanning electron microscope (SEM) along with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photospectroscopy (XPS), infrared (IR), photoluminescence (PL) and in situ I–V measurements by STM/TEM holder. The microscopic results revealed that the NWs having diameter in the range of ~30–100 nm and length in microns. Furthermore, the NWs are found to be single crystalline grown along [0 0 1] direction. The elemental composition and valence states of elements are analyzed by EDS and XPS. The room temperature PL spectra exhibit a broad range visible emission band. The electron transport property of a single NW illustrates the symmetric I–V curve of a semiconductor. The possible growth mechanism is also briefly discussed.     

One-sidewall-seeded epitaxial lateral overgrowth of a-plane GaN by metalorganic vapor-phase epitaxy

The selective regrowth of GaN during sidewall-seeded epitaxial lateral overgrowth was performed. In addition to adjusting the V/III ratio, control of offset angle of the sidewall was found to be effective for realizing one-sidewall-seeded a-plane (1 1 2¯ 0) GaN on r-plane (1 1¯ 0 2) sapphire. The number of coalescence regions on the grooves was reduced, and threading-dislocation and stacking-fault densities as low as 10⁶–10⁷ cm⁻² and 10³–10⁴ cm⁻¹, respectively, were successfully realized.     

A simple method to synthesize α-Si3N4, β-SiC and SiO2 nanowires by carbothermal route

α-Si₃N₄ nanowires, β-SiC nanowires and SiO₂ amorphous nanowires are synthesized via the direct current arc discharge method with a mixture of silicon, activated carbon and silicon dioxide as the precursor. The α-Si₃N₄ nanowires, β-SiC nanowires and SiO₂ amorphous nanowires are about 50–200 nm in stem diameter and 10–100 μm in length. α-Si₃N₄ nanowires and β-SiC nanowires consist of a solid single-crystalline core along the [0 0 1] and [1 1 1] directions, respectively, wrapped within an amorphous SiO_x layer. The direct current arc plasma-assisted self-catalytic vapor–solid and/or vapor–liquid–solid (VLS) growth processes are proposed as the growth mechanism of the nanowires.     

Influence of AlGaN/GaN/InGaN superlattice on the characteristics of LEDs grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

This study examined the influence of strain-compensated triple AlGaN/GaN/InGaN superlattice structures (SLs) in n-GaN on the structural, electrical and optical characteristics of LEDs by analyzing the etch pits density (EPD), stress measurement, high-resolution X-ray diffraction (HRXRD), sheet resistance, photoluminescence (PL) and light–current–voltage (L–I–V). EPD, stress measurement and HRXRD studies showed that the insertion of AlGaN/GaN/InGaN SLs during the growth of n-GaN effectively distributed and compensated for the strong compressive stress, and decreased the dislocation density in n-GaN. The operating voltage at 20 mA for the LEDs grown with SLs decreased to 3.18 V from 3.4 V for the LEDs grown without SLs. In addition, a decrease in the spectral blue shift compared to the LEDs grown without SLs was observed in the LEDs grown with the SLs.     

Studies on the effect of ammonia flow rate induced defects in gallium nitride grown by MOCVD

Gallium nitride (GaN) epitaxial layers were grown with different V/III ratios by varying the ammonia (NH₃) flow rate, keeping the flow rate of the other precursor, trimethylgallium (TMG), constant, in an MOCVD system. X-ray rocking curve widths of a (1 0 2) reflection increase with an increase in V/III ratio while the (0 0 2) rocking curve widths decrease. The dislocation density was found to increase with an increase in ammonia flow rate, as determined by hot-wet chemical etching and atomic force microscopy. 77 K photoluminescence studies show near band emission at 3.49 eV and yellow luminescence peaking at 2.2 eV. The yellow luminescence (YL) intensity decreases with an increase in V/III ratio. Positron annihilation spectroscopy studies show that the concentration of Ga-like vacancies increases with an increase in ammonia flow rate. This study confirms that the yellow luminescence in the GaN arises due to deep levels formed by gallium vacancies decorated with oxygen atoms.     

Growth of GaN films on PLD-deposited TaC substrates

GaN films were grown by metal organic chemical vapor deposition on TaC substrates that were created by pulsed laser deposition of TaC onto (0 0 0 1) SiC substrates at ∼1000 °C. This was done to determine if good quality TaC films could be grown, and if good quality GaN films could be grown on this closely lattice matched to GaN, conductive material. This was done by depositing the TaC on on-axis and 3° or 8° off-axis (0 0 0 1) SiC at temperatures ranging from 950 to 1200 °C, and examining them using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. The GaN films were grown on as-deposited TaC films, and films annealed at 1200, 1400, or 1600 °C, and examined using the same techniques. The TaC films were polycrystalline with a slight (1 1 1) texture, and the grains were ∼200 nm in diameter. Films grown on-axis were found to be of higher quality than those grown on off-axis substrates, but the latter could be improved to a comparable quality by annealing them at 1200–1600 °C for 30 min. TaC films deposited at temperatures above 1000 °C were found to react with the SiC. GaN films could be deposited onto the TaC when the surface was nitrided with NH₃ for 3 min at 1100 °C and the low temperature buffer layer was AlN. However, the GaN did not nucleate easily on the TaC film, and the crystallites did not have the desired (0 0 0 1) preferred orientation. They were ∼10 times larger than those typically seen in films grown on SiC or sapphire. Also the etch pit concentration in the GaN films grown on the TaC was more than 2 orders of magnitude less than it was for growth on the SiC.     

Growth of (1 0 1¯ 3¯ ) semipolar GaN on m-plane sapphire by hydride vapor phase epitaxy

The crystalline, surface, and optical properties of the (1 0 1¯ 3¯) semipolar GaN directly grown on m-plane sapphire substrates by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) were investigated. It was found that the increase of V/III ratio led to high quality (1 0 1¯ 3¯) oriented GaN epilayers with a morphology that may have been produced by step-flow growth and with minor evidence of anisotropic crystalline structure. After etching in the mixed acids, the inclined pyramids dominated the GaN surface with a density of 2×10⁵ cm⁻², revealing the N-polarity characteristic. In the low-temperature PL spectra, weak BSF-related emission at 3.44 eV could be observed as a shoulder of donor-bound exciton lines for the epilayer at high V/III ratio, which was indicative of obvious reduction of BSFs density. In comparison with other defect related emissions, a different quenching behavior was found for the 3.29 eV emission, characterized by the temperature-dependent PL measurement.