Validation of the community radiative transfer model

To validate the Community Radiative Transfer Model (CRTM) developed by the U.S. Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA), the discrete ordinate radiative transfer (DISORT) model and the line-by-line radiative transfer model (LBLRTM) are combined in order to provide a reference benchmark. Compared with the benchmark, the CRTM appears quite accurate for both clear sky and ice cloud radiance simulations with RMS errors below 0.2 K, except for clouds with small ice particles. In a computer CPU run time comparison, the CRTM is faster than DISORT by approximately two orders of magnitude. Using the operational MODIS cloud products and the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) atmospheric profiles as an input, the CRTM is employed to simulate the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) radiances. The CRTM simulations are shown to be in reasonably close agreement with the AIRS measurements (the discrepancies are within 2 K in terms of brightness temperature difference). Furthermore, the impact of uncertainties in the input cloud properties and atmospheric profiles on the CRTM simulations has been assessed. The CRTM-based brightness temperatures (BTs) at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), for both thin (τ<5) and thick (τ>30) clouds, are highly sensitive to uncertainties in atmospheric temperature and cloud top pressure. However, for an optically thick cloud, the CRTM-based BTs are not sensitive to the uncertainties of cloud optical thickness, effective particle size, and atmospheric humidity profiles. On the contrary, the uncertainties of the CRTM-based TOA BTs resulting from effective particle size and optical thickness are not negligible in an optically thin cloud.     

A fast infrared radiative transfer model for overlapping clouds

A fast infrared radiative transfer model (FIRTM2) appropriate for application to both single-layered and overlapping cloud situations is developed for simulating the outgoing infrared spectral radiance at the top of the atmosphere (TOA). In FIRTM2 a pre-computed library of cloud reflectance and transmittance values is employed to account for one or two cloud layers, whereas the background atmospheric optical thickness due to gaseous absorption can be computed from a clear-sky radiative transfer model. FIRTM2 is applicable to three atmospheric conditions: (1) clear-sky, (2) single-layered ice or water cloud, and (3) two simultaneous cloud layers in a column (e.g., ice cloud overlying water cloud). Moreover, FIRTM2 outputs the derivatives (i.e., Jacobians) of the TOA brightness temperature with respect to cloud optical thickness and effective particle size. Sensitivity analyses have been carried out to assess the performance of FIRTM2 for two spectral regions, namely the longwave (LW) band (587.3-1179.5 cm⁻¹) and the short-to-medium wave (SMW) band (1180.1-2228.9 cm⁻¹). The assessment is carried out in terms of brightness temperature differences (BTD) between FIRTM2 and the well-known discrete ordinates radiative transfer model (DISORT), henceforth referred to as BTD (F−D). The BTD (F−D) values for single-layered clouds are generally less than 0.8 K. For the case of two cloud layers (specifically ice cloud over water cloud), the BTD (F−D) values are also generally less than 0.8 K except for the SMW band for the case of a very high altitude (>15 km) cloud comprised of small ice particles. Note that for clear-sky atmospheres, FIRTM2 reduces to the clear-sky radiative transfer model that is incorporated into FIRTM2, and the errors in this case are essentially those of the clear-sky radiative transfer model.     

Temperature dependence of ice optical constants: Implications for simulating the single-scattering properties of cold ice clouds

For a spectrum from ultraviolet to microwave and a temperature range from 160 to 270 K, the optical constants of water ice are compiled on the basis of the Kramers-Kronig relation in conjunction with existing datasets reported in literature. Significant temperature dependence is observed in both the mid-infrared and longer wavelengths. A sensitivity study at wavelengths in the infrared split window region indicates that the temperature dependence of the single-scattering properties of ice crystals is not negligible. Thus, it is necessary to take into account the temperature dependence of ice optical constants when simulating the radiative properties of cirrus clouds for various applications to remote sensing under cirrus cloud conditions.     

相态对冰水混合云微观特性反演的影响研究

当云层的温度在－40℃~0℃之间时, 云层中会存在冰和水两种相态的云滴, 其散射特性与纯水云以及纯冰云特性有较大差异, 因此遥感反演混合相云层的微观和宏观物理特性具有重要的意义。本文采用冰水双层球模型模拟了冰水混合云中的云滴, 利用Mie理论计算了纯水、纯冰和冰水颗粒的单次散射特性, 分析了单次散射相函数, 不对称因子, 单次散射反照率等随着有效半径、相态、内外半径比等的变化特性。利用离散纵标法(DISORT)计算了水云和冰云对0.75 μm、2.16 μm和3.3 μm的双向反射函数, 讨论了利用纯水滴和纯冰滴反演冰水混合云滴的误差。分析结果表明, 利用0.75 μm和2.16 μm的太阳光反演冰水混合云的光学厚度和有效半径时, 光学厚度误差较大, 有效半径误差较小; 结合0.75 μm和3.3 μm的太阳光反演冰水混合云的光学厚度和有效半径时, 光学厚度误差较小, 有效半径误差较大, 其会高估其有效半径; 另外结合0.75 μm和3.3 μm这两个波长的反射函数反演冰水云的冰水混合比更为有效。     

星载激光雷达云和气溶胶分类反演算法研究

激光探测对于获取云和气溶胶的垂直廓线,研究大气中云和气溶胶的垂直分布特征以及对全球气候变化的影响意义重大。而星载大气激光雷达云气溶胶分类算法的研究,对于激光雷达数据的参数反演及应用极为重要。针对激光条件下探测的云和气溶胶特有的光学信息和空间分布,结合概率统计与机器学习算法,提出了一种对于云/气溶胶、云相态及气溶胶子类型识别的分类算法,实现了星载激光雷达的大气特征层快速、有效分类。算法采用中国地区2016年CALIOP的观测数据作为样本数据,主要由三部分组成：（1）基于激光探测的云和气溶胶层不同的光学特性以及地理空间分布特征,分别构建了云和气溶胶的γ₅₃₂,χ,δ,Z和lat的五维概率密度函数,以此为基础构建云气溶胶的分类置信函数,并基于此实现了云和气溶胶类型的反演;（2）选取支持向量机(SVM)作为随机朝向冰晶粒子(ROI)和水云分类的算法模型基础,结合云层的γ₅₃₂,χ,δ Z和云顶温度T的概率密度函数构建ROI,水平朝向冰晶粒子(HOI)和水云的分类置信函数以修正SVM误分的特征层以及筛选出水云中少部分的HOI冰云,获得云相态的分类结果;（3）以各气溶胶子类型的光学以及空间分布特性为基础,采用决策树策略的气溶胶子类型识别算法实现了对气溶胶子类型的区分,完成气溶胶子类型的识别。利用现有CALIOP观测结果作为样本数据构建分类数据库,避免了对于地面以及航测数据的依赖,而机器学习则大大简化了算法的实现过程,使得云气溶胶分类更加高效。算法结果与正交极化云气溶胶激光雷达垂直特征层分布数据(CALIPSO VFM)产品对比分析：云层有98.51%一致性,气溶胶有88.43%的一致性,且白天比夜间一致性高。对于云相态分类,可以有效区分出水云和冰云,其中二者水云一致性高达93.44%。在气溶胶子类型反演结果中,可以准确识别出大多数气溶胶特征层子类型。霾、沙尘以及晴空三种典型情况下的反演结果均与CALIOP VFM产品数据具有较好的一致性。其中,霾天的大部分煤烟型以及污染型（污染沙尘以及污染大陆）气溶胶反演结果与VFM具有较好的一致性。沙尘天也能够获得较好的沙尘以及污染沙尘的结果。晴空为数不多的气溶胶层也取得了较为一致的结果。对于实现的星载大气激光雷达特征层分类算法,针对CALIOP激光测量的云气溶胶层的分类进行了重要的改进,在保证一定精度的基础上,简化了算法,提高了数据处理的效率,在下一步工作中,将分别构建不同时段和季节的分类模型以及提高两种不同偏振特性的冰云和气溶胶子类型的分类精度。     

复杂大气背景下机载通信终端与无人机目标之间的激光传输特性研究

云层、气溶胶和大气分子是大气环境的主要组成部分.本文基于逐次散射法求解辐射传输方程,建立了复杂大气背景下机载无线光通信终端与地空无人机目标之间的激光传输模型.考虑真实大气背景中卷云、大气分子和气溶胶存在的情况下,数值计算了1.55 mm激光经机载通信终端发出后通过大气背景的直接传输和一阶散射传输后接收功率随无人机目标高度的变化关系,分析了飞机在云上、云中和云下以及卷云冰晶粒子有效半径、飞机与无人机之间的水平距离对接收激光信号传输功率的影响.数值结果表明:激光通过卷云传输的功率很大程度上取决于飞机在云上、云下或云中的位置;飞机与无人机目标之间的水平距离和卷云冰晶粒子的有效半径对激光直接传输和一阶散射传输影响较大;与云上大气相比,云下的大气分子和气溶胶对激光有较大的衰减.本文工作可为进一步开展地空链路上复杂大气背景对机载与低空无人机目标激光通信实验、无人机编队、指挥和组网技术的研究提供理论支撑.     

A method for estimating optical properties of dusty cloud

Based on the scattering properties of nonspherical dust aerosol, a new method is developed for retrieving dust aerosol optical depths of dusty clouds. The dusty clouds are defined as the hybrid system of dust plume and cloud. The new method is based on transmittance measurements from surface-based instruments multi-filter rotating shadowband radiometer （MFRSR） and cloud parameters from lidar measurements. It uses the difference of absorption between dust aerosols and water droplets for distinguishing and estimating the optical properties of dusts and clouds, respectively. This new retrieval method is not sensitive to the retrieval error of cloud properties and the maximum absolute deviations of dust aerosol and total optical depths for thin dusty cloud retrieval algorithm are only 0.056 and 0.1, respectively, for given possible uncertainties. The retrieval error for thick dusty cloud mainly depends on lidar-based total dusty cloud properties.     

Characterization of adsorbed species on soot formed behind reflected shock waves

The present work addresses the soot formation parameters behind reflected shock waves and the identification of adsorbed species on their surface. Soot induction delay times and yields have been experimentally determined in the case of toluene pyrolysis highly diluted in argon for the following conditions: the initial carbon atoms concentration was kept constant around 1 × 10¹⁸ C atoms cm⁻³, reflected shock pressure and temperature ranges of 1135-1600 kPa and 1470-2230 K, respectively. The decrease of the induction time, as the temperature is raised, was described using an Arrhenius type expression while, for the bell-shaped evolution of the soot yield versus the temperature, a modified Gaussian expression was derived. Using TEM analysis, the mean particle diameter was found to decrease from 35 to 20 nm as the temperature is raised from 1475 to 2135 K. The micro-texture of the soot sample was found to vary as the temperature is raised, leading to a more organised structure. The adsorbed species on these soot were characterized using laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometer. Results indicate that for temperatures below 1600 K, PAHs in the 178-572 atomic mass units (amu) range were identified. PAHs range was limited to 178-374 amu above 1900 K and they were of benzenoid type above 1600 K. The amount of species adsorbed on the soot surface was found to be inversely proportional to the soot yield with a maximum for the lower temperature domain.     

Growth of Ni-Al alloys on Ni(1 1 1): (I) Formation of epitaxial Ni3Al from ultra-thin Al deposits

In this paper we describe the alloying process of ultra-thin Al layers (below 8 × 10¹⁵ Al/cm²) deposited on Ni(1 1 1). For this purpose Auger electron spectroscopy, low energy electron diffraction, and ion beam analysis-channelling measurements have been performed in situ in an ultra-high vacuum chamber. Al deposits formed at low temperature (about 130 K) are strained defective crystalline layers retaining the substrate orientation. Alloying takes place, with very progressive Ni enrichment, in a very broad temperature range between 250 K and 570 K. This feature shows that diffusion of the alloy species is more and more difficult when the Ni concentration increases. At 570 K a crystallographically and chemically ordered Ni₃Al phase is formed, and its order continuously improves upon annealing, up to 750 K. We have shown by ion beam methods that this alloy is three-dimensional, extending up to 16 (1 1 1) planes for the thickest deposits. The Ni₃Al phase can also be obtained directly by Al deposition at 750 K, but its crystalline quality is lower and the layer is probably formed of grains elongated along 〈1 1 −2〉 directions. The Al content of the thin Ni₃Al layers formed mostly dissolves in the bulk above 800 K. However a small amount of Al remains segregated at the Ni crystal surface.     

An iterative calculation to derive extinction-to-backscatter ratio based on lidar measurements

The aerosol optical thickness (AOT) is an important parameter for understanding the radiative impact of aerosols. AOT based on lidar measurements is often limited by its finite detection range. In this paper, we have reported a method of fitting and iterative calculation to derive the extinction profile of background aerosols from 0 to 30 km at 532 nm, which is virtually the AOT of the entire atmosphere. The mean extinction derived from this method at the ground level tallies with visibility measurement and it is also consistent with the sun-photometer data, within experimental error. These data have been further treated to study the dust cases. For most of the cases, transmission losses were determined to estimate the extinction as well as lidar ratio. The result of the analysis shows that for background aerosols, a mean lidar ratio of 47±15 sr was found. For dust layers, a mean lidar ratio of 44±19 sr and an optical thickness of 0.53±0.49 were determined at 532 nm.     

Estimates of radiation over clouds and dust aerosols: Optimized number of terms in phase function expansion

The bulk-scattering properties of dust aerosols and clouds are computed for the community radiative transfer model (CRTM) that is a flagship effort of the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation (JCSDA). The delta-fit method is employed to truncate the forward peaks of the scattering phase functions and to compute the Legendre expansion coefficients for re-constructing the truncated phase function. Use of more terms in the expansion gives more accurate re-construction of the phase function, but the issue remains as to how many terms are necessary for different applications. To explore this issue further, the bidirectional reflectances associated with dust aerosols, water clouds, and ice clouds are simulated with various numbers of Legendre expansion terms. To have relative numerical errors smaller than 5%, the present analyses indicate that, in the visible spectrum, 16 Legendre polynomials should be used for dust aerosols, while 32 Legendre expansion terms should be used for both water and ice clouds. In the infrared spectrum, the brightness temperatures at the top of the atmosphere are computed by using the scattering properties of dust aerosols, water clouds and ice clouds. Although small differences of brightness temperatures compared with the counterparts computed with 4, 8, 128 expansion terms are observed at large viewing angles for each layer, it is shown that 4 terms of Legendre polynomials are sufficient in the radiative transfer computation at infrared wavelengths for practical applications.     

Polarization difference due to nonrandomly oriented ice particles at millimeter/submillimeter waveband

This paper presents polarized signature due to oriented circular columnar and planar ice crystals at millimeter/submillimeter (mm/sub-mm) waveband. DDSCAT 6.1 and RT4 code package are employed for scattering properties and radiative transfer simulations, respectively, at the three estimated window frequencies (150, 220 and 340 GHz) of FengYun-4 (FY-4). We use empirical formulas to describe realistic sizes of planar and columnar particles and assume that ice particles are in Gamma-size distribution in this study. A “resonance” feature of polarized signals as a function of median mass diameter is notably found for horizontally oriented columns and blunt plates at the frequency of 340 GHz; however, there is no promising resonance characteristic for horizontally aligned plates with empirical sizes at the three window channels of FY-4. The position of the resonance peak is related to particle aspect ratio, frequency and ice water path (IWP), and it moves to a shorter median mass diameter when the particle aspect ratio decreases or IWP in clouds increases. Considering that particle canting angle distribution (Gaussian distribution in this study), polarization difference, as well as the brightness temperature difference between clear and cloudy sky, decreases rapidly when particles gradually change from horizontally oriented to randomly oriented. The upwelling brightness temperature is insensitive to particle size and shape but sensitive to particle orientation, the difference of brightness temperature between horizontal and random orientation up to 6 K, whereas polarized signature is quite sensitive to particle microphysics as well as orientation; polarized measurements thereby could benefit retrieval of cloud microphysical parameters.     

On the retrieval of ice cloud particle shapes from POLDER measurements

Shapes of ice crystals can significantly affect the radiative transfer in ice clouds. The angular distribution of the polarized reflectance over ice clouds strongly depends on ice crystal shapes. Although the angular-distribution features of the total or polarized reflectance over ice clouds imply a possibility of retrieving ice cloud particle shapes by use of remote sensing data, the accuracy of the retrieval must be evaluated. In this study, a technique that applies single ice crystal habit and multidirectional polarized radiance to retrieve ice cloud particle shapes is assessed. Our sensitivity studies show that the retrieved particle shapes from this algorithm can be considered good approximations to those in actual clouds in calculation of the phase matrix elements. However, this algorithm can only work well under the following conditions: (1) the retrievable must be overcast and thick ice cloud pixels, (2) the particles in the cloud must be randomly oriented, (3) the particle shapes and size distributions used in the lookup tables must be representative, and (4) the multi-angle polarized measurements must be accurate and sufficient to identify ice cloud pixels of randomly oriented particles. In practice, these conditions will exclude most of the measured cloud pixels. Additionally, because the polarized measurements are only sensitive to the upper cloud part not deeper than an optical thickness of 4, the retrieved particle shapes with the polarized radiance may only approximate those in the upper parts of the clouds. In other words, for thicker clouds with vertical inhomogeneity in particle shapes, these retrieved particle shapes cannot represent those of whole clouds. More robust algorithm is needed in accurate retrieval of ice cloud particle shapes.     

Antiferromagnetic transition and electrical conductivity in α-Gd2S3

Magnetic susceptibility and electrical resistivity of α-Gd₂S₃ with an orthorhombic structure (space group: Pnma) have been measured for powder and single-crystal samples. While the magnetic susceptibility of powder sample exhibits a broad peak having a maximum at 4.2 K, the susceptibility for a single crystal with an applied magnetic field along the b-axis demonstrates a sharp drop below 10 K. Nevertheless, the susceptibility with the field perpendicular to the b-axis keeps increasing with decreasing temperature even below 10 K. The electrical resistivity ρ for the powder sample of 4.2×10³ Ω cm around room temperature increases with decreasing temperature and shows a slight discontinuity at about 65 K. In both regions above and below 65 K, is proportional to T^−1/4 with respective coefficients, which is associated with Mott variable-range hopping conductivity. The resistivity of a single crystal along the b-axis is considerably smaller than the value for the powder sample as 0.35 Ω cm at room temperature, and its temperature dependence is fairly weak. While cooling, the resistivity first decreases down to 240 K and then keeps the value independent of the temperature down to 140 K, and subsequently rises gently below 140 K.     

Soot formation and temperature field structure in co-flow laminar methane-air diffusion flames at pressures from 10 to 60 atm

The effects of pressure on soot formation and the structure of the temperature field were studied in co-flow methane-air laminar diffusion flames over a wide pressure range, from 10 to 60 atm in a high-pressure combustion chamber. The selected fuel mass flow rate provided diffusion flames in which the soot was completely oxidized within the visible flame envelope and the flame was stable at all pressures considered. The spatially resolved soot volume fraction and soot temperature were measured by spectral soot emission as a function of pressure. The visible (luminous) flame height remained almost unchanged from 10 to 100 atm. Peak soot concentrations showed a strong dependence on pressure at relatively lower pressures; but this dependence got weaker as the pressure is increased. The maximum conversion of the fuel’s carbon to soot, 12.6%, was observed at 60 atm at approximately the mid-height of the flame. Radial temperature gradients within the flame increased with pressure and decreased with flame height above the burner rim. Higher radial temperature gradients near the burner exit at higher pressures mean that the thermal diffusion from the hot regions of the flame towards the flame centerline is enhanced. This leads to higher fuel pyrolysis rates causing accelerated soot nucleation and growth as the pressure increases.     

Sensitivity of depolarized lidar signals to cloud and aerosol particle properties

Measurements from depolarized lidars provide a promising method to retrieve both cloud and aerosol properties and a versatile complement to passive satellite-based sensors. For lidar observations of clouds and aerosols, multiple scattering plays an important role in the scattering process. Monte Carlo simulations are carried out to investigate the sensitivity of lidar backscattering depolarization to cloud and aerosol properties. Lidar parameters are chosen to be similar to those of the upcoming space-based CALIPSO lidar. Cases are considered that consist of a single cloud or aerosol layer, as well as a case in which cirrus clouds overlay different types of aerosols. It is demonstrated that besides thermodynamic cloud phase, the depolarized lidar signal may provide additional information on ice or aerosol particle shapes. However, our results show little sensitivity to ice or aerosol particle sizes. Additionally, for the case of multiple but overlapping layers involving both clouds and aerosols, the depolarized lidar contains information that can help identify the particle properties of each layer.     

Temperature dependence of thermal property for lead nitrate crystal

Thermal property was measured in a lead nitrate crystal, Pb(NO₃)₂, at temperatures from 90 to 340 K by use of ac calorimetry technique. The heat capacity derived from the measurements showed temperature dependence with thermal hysteresis, in the temperature region from 240 to 300 K. The anomaly of the heat capacity was found in the vicinity of 275.22 K. The broad temperature variation in the heat capacity was observed in the region from 235 to 260 K.     

Magnetic birefringence of iron oxyhydroxide nanoparticles stabilised by sucrose

Magnetically induced optical birefringence is used to investigate pharmaceutically important iron-sucrose aqueous suspensions. XRD and TEM measurements of the system of oxyhydroxide particles stabilised by sucrose have shown that this system contains iron oxyhydroxide in the form of 2-5 nm particles. The mineral form of the iron-core is suggested to be akaganeite. Anisotropy of the optical polarizability and magnetic susceptibility of akaganeite nanoparticles are calculated. The permanent dipole moment obtained for the nanoparticles studied was found to be negligible, in agreement with the characteristic superparamagnetic behaviour of the magnetic nanoparticles observed at room temperature. The Neel temperature of these nanoparticles is estimated as below 276 K. The results obtained are discussed against a background of the earlier studies of similar nanoscale systems.     

Effect of substrate temperature on the structural, optical and electrical properties of dc magnetron sputtered tantalum oxide films

dc reactive magnetron sputtering technique was employed for deposition of tantalum oxide films on quartz and silicon substrates by sputtering of pure tantalum target in the presence of oxygen and argon gases under various substrate temperatures in the range 303-973 K. The variation of cathode potential with the oxygen partial pressure was systematically studied. The influence of substrate temperature on the chemical binding configuration, crystal structure and optical properties was investigated. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic studies indicated that the films formed at oxygen partial pressures ≥1 × 10⁻⁴ mbar were stoichiometric. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic studies revealed that the films formed up to substrate temperatures <673 K showed a broad absorption band at 750-1000 cm⁻¹ and a sharp band at 630 cm⁻¹ indicated the presence of amorphous phase while at higher substrate temperatures the appearance of bands at about 810 and 510 cm⁻¹ revealed the polycrystalline nature. The effect of substrate temperature on the electrical characteristics of Al/Ta₂O₅/Si structure was investigated. The dielectric constant values were in the range 17-29 in the substrate temperature range of 303-973 K. The current-voltage characteristics showed modified Poole-Frenkel conduction mechanism with a tendency for reduction of the compensation level. The optical band gap of the films decreased from 4.44 to 4.25 eV and the refractive index increased from 1.89 to 2.25 with the increase of substrate temperature from 303 to 973 K.     

Intrinsic absorption threshold of stishovite and coesite

The optical absorption spectra of the small mono-crystals samples of stishovite and coesite were studied at first. The intrinsic absorption threshold of stishovite is determined at 8.75 eV, being probably, highest in the family of different crystalline polymorph modifications of silicon dioxide. The absorption spectrum of stishovite is independent of temperature (studied in the range 290-450 K). The intrinsic absorption threshold of coesite mono-crystal situated near 8.6 eV at 293 K, coincides within experimental errors with that of α-quartz crystal, and depends on temperature, as used to be for the tetrahedron structured silicon dioxide crystalline modifications. A broad absorption band with a first spread maximum near 7.6 eV sides with intrinsic absorption threshold was found in the stishovite mono-crystal sample. Its low intensity (about 10 cm⁻¹) in an as-received sample shows on a defective nature of this band. No analogous band was detected in the sample of coesite.