Hearing loss from interrupted, intermittent, and time varying Gaussian noise exposures: the applicability of the equal energy hypothesis

Eight groups of chinchillas (N=74) were exposed to various equivalent energy [100 or 106 dB(A) sound pressure level (SPL)] noise exposure paradigms. Six groups received an interrupted, intermittent, time varying (IITV) Gaussian noise exposure that lasted 8 h/d, 5 d/week for 3 weeks. The exposures modeled an idealized workweek. At each level, three different temporal patterns of Gaussian IITV noise were used. The 100 dB(A) IITV exposure had a dB range of 90-108 dB SPL while the range of the 106 dB(A) IITV exposure was 80-115 dB SPL. Two reference groups were exposed to a uniform 100 or 106 dB(A) SPL noise, 24 h/d for 5 days. Each reference group and the three corresponding IITV groups comprised a set of equivalent energy exposures. Evoked potentials were used to estimate hearing thresholds and surface preparation histology quantified sensory cell populations. All six groups exposed to the IITV noise showed threshold toughening effects of up to 40 dB. All IITV exposures produced hearing and sensory cell loss that was similar to their respective equivalent energy reference group. These results indicate that for Gaussian noise the equal energy hypothesis for noise-induced hearing loss is an acceptable unifying principle.     

The kurtosis metric as an adjunct to energy in the prediction of trauma from continuous, nonGaussian noise exposures

Data from an earlier study [Hamernik et al. (2003). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 114, 386-395] were consistent in showing that, for equivalent energy [Leq= 100 dB(A)] and spectra, exposure to a continuous, nonGaussian (nonG) noise could produce substantially greater hearing and sensory cell loss in the chinchilla model than a Gaussian (G) noise exposure and that the statistical metric, kurtosis, computed on the amplitude distribution of the noise could order the extent of the trauma. This paper extends these results to Leq= 90 and 110 dB(A), and to nonG noises that are generated using broadband noise bursts, and band limited impacts within a continuous G background noise. Data from nine new experimental groups with 11 or 12 chinchillas/group is presented. Evoked response audiometry established hearing thresholds and surface preparation histology quantified sensory cell loss. At the lowest level [Leq=90 dB(A)] there were no differences in the trauma produced by G and nonG exposures. For Leq >90 dB(A) nonG exposures produced increased trauma relative to equivalent G exposures. Removing energy from the impacts by limiting their bandwidth reduced trauma. The use of noise bursts to produce the nonG noise instead of impacts also reduced the amount of trauma.     

Cochlear toughening,protection, and potentiation of noise-induced trauma by non-Gaussian noise

An interrupted noise exposure of sufficient intensity, presented on a daily repeating cycle, produces a threshold shift (TS) following the first day of exposure. TSs measured on subsequent days of the exposure sequence have been shown to decrease relative to the initial TS. This reduction of TS, despite the continuing daily exposure regime, has been called a cochlear toughening effect and the exposures referred to as toughening exposures. Four groups of chinchillas were exposed to one of four different noises presented on an interrupted (6 h/day for 20 days) or noninterrupted (24 h/day for 5 days) schedule. The exposures had equivalent total energy, an overall level of 100 dB(A) SPL, and approximately the same flat, broadband long-term spectrum. The noises differed primarily in their temporal structures; two were Gaussian and two were non-Gausssian, nonstationary. Brainstem auditory evoked potentials were used to estimate hearing thresholds and surface preparation histology was used to determine sensory cell loss. The experimental results presented here show that: (1) Exposures to interrupted high-level, non-Gaussian signals produce a toughening effect comparable to that produced by an equivalent interrupted Gaussian noise. (2) Toughening, whether produced by Gaussian or non-Gaussian noise, results in reduced trauma compared to the equivalent uninterrupted noise, and (3) that both continuous and interrupted non-Gaussian exposures produce more trauma than do energy and spectrally equivalent Gaussian noises. Over the course of the 20-day exposure, the pattern of TS following each day's exposure could exhibit a variety of configurations. These results do not support the equal energy hypothesis as a unifying principal for estimating the potential of a noise exposure to produce hearing loss.     

Energy-independent factors influencing noise-induced hearing loss in the chinchilla model.

The effects on hearing and the sensory cell population of four continuous, non-Gaussian noise exposures each having an A-weighted L(eq)=100 dB SPL were compared to the effects of an energy-equivalent Gaussian noise. The non-Gaussian noise conditions were characterized by the statistical metric, kurtosis (beta), computed on the unfiltered, beta(t), and the filtered, beta(f), time-domain signals. The chinchilla (n=58) was used as the animal model. Hearing thresholds were estimated using auditory-evoked potentials (AEP) recorded from the inferior colliculus and sensory cell populations were obtained from surface preparation histology. Despite equivalent exposure energies, the four non-Gaussian conditions produced considerably greater hearing and sensory cell loss than did the Gaussian condition. The magnitude of this excess trauma produced by the non-Gaussian noise was dependent on the frequency content, but not on the average energy content of the impacts which gave the noise its non-Gaussian character. These results indicate that beta(t) is an appropriate index of the increased hazard of exposure to non-Gaussian noises and that beta(f) may be useful in the prediction of the place-specific additional outer hair cell loss produced by non-Gaussian exposures. The results also suggest that energy-based metrics, while necessary for the prediction of noise-induced hearing loss, are not sufficient.     

The effects of the amplitude distribution of equal energy exposures on noise-induced hearing loss: the kurtosis metric

Seventeen groups of chinchillas with 11 to 16 animals/group (sigmaN = 207) were exposed for 5 days to either a Gaussian (G) noise or 1 of 16 different non-Gaussian (non-G) noises at 100 dB(A) SPL. All exposures had the same total energy and approximately the same flat spectrum but their statistical properties were varied to yield a series of exposure conditions that varied across a continuum from G through various non-G conditions to pure impact noise exposures. The non-G character of the noise was produced by inserting high level transients (impacts or noise bursts) into the otherwise G noise. The peak SPL of the transients, their bandwidth, and the intertransient intervals were varied, as was the rms level of the G noise. The statistical metric, kurtosis (beta), computed on the unfiltered noise beta(t), was varied 3 < or = beta(t) < or = 105. Brainstem auditory evoked responses were used to estimate hearing thresholds and surface preparation histology was used to determine sensory cell loss. Trauma, as measured by asymptotic and permanent threshold shifts (ATS, PTS) and by sensory cell loss, was greater for all of the non-G exposure conditions. Permanent effects of the exposures increased as beta(t) increased and reached an asymptote at beta(t) approximately 40. For beta(t) > 40 varying the interval or peak histograms did not alter the level of trauma, suggesting that, in the chinchilla model, for beta(t) > 40 an energy metric may be effective in evaluating the potential of non-G noise environments to produce hearing loss. Reducing the probability of a transient occurring could reduce the permanent effects of the non-G exposures. These results lend support to those standards documents that use an energy metric for gauging the hazard of exposure but only after applying a "correction factor" when high level transients are present. Computing beta on the filtered noise signal [beta(f)] provides a frequency specific metric for the non-G noises that is correlated with the additional frequency specific outer hair cell loss produced by the non-G noise. The data from the abundant and varied exposure conditions show that the kurtosis of the amplitude distribution of a noise environment is an important variable in determining the hazards to hearing posed by non-Gaussian noise environments.     

Noise levels and hearing thresholds in the drop forging industry

A-weighted equivalent continuous noise levels for hammer and press operations in a drop-forging industry were determined using both tape recordings of the noise and personal noise dosimeters. The results indicated average A-weighted Leq values of 108 dB for hammer operators and 99 dB for press operators. Comparison of hearing level statistics for 716 hammer and press operators and 293 control subjects indicated the severe hazard to hearing of impact noise exposures. For mean exposure times of less than 10 years, hearing levels for the press (99 dB) and hammer (108 dB) operator age groups are nearly identical, and in the latter case are less than those predicted for exposure to equivalent continuous noise. For long-term exposures of 10 years or more, the results of this study indicate that hearing losses resulting from impact noise in the drop-forging industry are as great or greater than those resulting from continuous noise.     

Effect of periodic rest on hearing loss and cochlear damage following exposure to noise

Changes in hearing sensitivity and cochlear damage were determined in two groups of chinchillas exposed to an octave band of noise (OBN) centered at 0.5 kHz, 95 dB SPL on two different schedules: 6 h per day for 36 days, or 15 min/h for 144 days. Hearing sensitivity was measured behaviorally at 1/4-oct frequency intervals from 0.125 to 16.0 kHz before, during, and for a period of 1 to 2 months after the exposure, at which time the animals' cochleas were fixed and prepared for microscopic examination. Cochlear damage was determined by counts of missing sensory cells. Both exposures produced an initial shift of thresholds of 35-45 dB; however, after a few days of exposure, thresholds began to decline and eventually recovered to within 10-15 dB of original baseline values even though the exposure continued. Measures of recovery made after completion of the exposures indicated minimal permanent threshold shifts in all animals. The behavioral and anatomical data indicated that these intermittent exposures produced less temporary and permanent hearing loss and less cochlear damage than continuous exposures of equal energy.     

Recent studies of temporary threshold shift (TTS) and permanent threshold shift (PTS) in animals

It is well known that excessive exposure to noise results in temporary and/or permanent changes in hearing sensitivity in both human and animal subjects. The purpose of this review is to describe the major findings from laboratory studies of experimentally induced hearing losses, both temporary and permanent, resulting from exposure to noise in animal subjects which have been published since the report of Kryter et al. (1966). The data reviewed support the following general statements: (1) The chinchilla is the most widely used and most appropriate animal model for studies of noise-induced hearing loss; (2) with continuous exposures to moderate-level noise, thresholds reach asymptotic levels (ATS) within 18-24 h; (3) permanent threshold shifts, however, depend upon the level, frequency, and the duration of exposure; (4) below a "critical level" of about 115 dB, permanent threshold shift (PTS) and cell loss are generally related to the total energy in continuous exposures; (5) periodic rest periods inserted in an exposure schedule are protective and result in less hearing loss and cochlear damage than equal energy continuous exposures; and (6) under some schedules of periodic exposure, threshold shifts increase over the first few days of exposure, then recover as much as 30 dB as the exposure continues.     

基于二级自适应滤波的水下目标动态谱线增强算法研究

为了从非高斯噪声环境中有效提取水下目标辐射的线谱信号,以提高水下探测系统检测水下目标的能力,提出了基于二级自适应滤波的水下目标动态谱线增强算法,该算法用基于高阶累积量能量幂函数变步长极性迭代的自适应谱线增强器作为第一级,用传统的自适应谱线增强器(ALE)作为第二级,实行串级联接。用输入信号的峭度定义了峭度信噪比,并用此分析了该算法的性能。用水下某目标辐射线谱的实测数据,对该算法的性能进行了仿真研究。结果表明:当环境噪声为瑞利噪声或混合噪声(包含均匀分布、瑞利分布和拉普拉斯分布的噪声成分)时,该算法与ALE算法相比,有良好的抑制抑高斯噪声或非高斯噪声、提高信噪比和跟踪时变信号的性能。     

Impact noise: the importance of level, duration, and repetition rate

The applicability of the equal energy hypothesis (EEH) to impact noise exposures was studied using chinchillas. Hearing thresholds were estimated by recording the evoked potentials from a chronic electrode implanted in the inferior colliculus. The animals were exposed to broadband impacts of 200-ms duration. The study was carried out in two parts. In experiment I, six exposure levels (107, 113, 119, 125, 131, and 137 dB SPL) and three repetition rates (4/s, 1/s and 1/4s) were employed. In the second experiment, the total duration of the exposure as well as the total energy were kept constant by trading level and rate. Results indicate that hearing loss resulting from exposure to impact noise does not conform to the predictions of the EEH. The permanent threshold shift as well as the hair cell loss are more or less equal across the lower peak exposure levels. However, both the hearing loss and the hair cell damage increase for exposures with higher peak levels. Furthermore, hearing loss and cochlear damage are dependent upon the rate of exposure. Thus the amount of hearing loss and hair cell damage appears to depend on the interaction of several factors including peak level, rate, and the susceptibility of the animal.     

Temporary threshold shift in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) exposed to mid-frequency tones

A behavioral response paradigm was used to measure hearing thresholds in bottlenose dolphins before and after exposure to 3 kHz tones with sound exposure levels (SELs) from 100 to 203 dB re 1 microPa2 s. Experiments were conducted in a relatively quiet pool with ambient noise levels below 55 dB re 1 microPa2/Hz at frequencies above 1 kHz. Experiments 1 and 2 featured 1-s exposures with hearing tested at 4.5 and 3 kHz, respectively. Experiment 3 featured 2-, 4-, and 8-s exposures with hearing tested at 4.5 kHz. For experiment 2, there were no significant differences between control and exposure sessions. For experiments 1 and 3, exposures with SEL=197 dB re 1 microPa2 s and SEL > or = 195 dB re 1 microPa2 s, respectively, resulted in significantly higher TTS4 than control sessions. For experiment 3 at SEL= 195 dB re 1 microPa2 s, the mean TTS4 was 2.8 dB. These data are consistent with prior studies of TTS in dolphins exposed to pure tones and octave band noise and suggest that a SEL of 195 dB re 1 microPa2 s is a reasonable threshold for the onset of TTS in dolphins and white whales exposed to midfrequency tones.     

Is it necessary to penalize impulsive noise +5 dB due to higher risk of hearing damage?

It is studied whether the +5 dB penalty for impulsiveness established by ISO 1999:1990 accounts for a higher risk of noise-induced hearing loss. A total of 16 normal-hearing human subjects were exposed for 10 min to two types of binaural industrial-recordings: (1) a continuous broad-band noise normalized to L(EX,8 h)=80 dBA and (2) the combination of the previous stimulus with an impulsive noise normalized to L(EX,8 h)=75+5(db penalty)=80 dBA (peak level 117 dBC and repetition rate of 0.5 impacts per second). Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were measured in a broad frequency range before and in the following 90 min after the exposure. The group results show that the continuous exposure had a bigger impact on DPOAE levels, with a maximum DPOAE shift of approximately 5 dB in the frequency range of 2-3.15 kHz during the first 10 min of the recovery. No evident DPOAE shift is seen for the impulsive + continuous stimulus. The results indicate that the penalty overestimated the effects on DPOAE levels and support the concept that the risk of hearing loss from low-level impulses may be predicted on an equal-energy basis.     

Cubic distortion product otoacoustic emissions in young and aged chinchillas exposed to low-frequency noise.

The aim of this study was to examine susceptibility to noise-induced hearing loss in animals with and without age-related hearing loss (AHL), using cubic distortion product otoacoustic emissions (CDPs) to assess the functional status of the outer hair cell (OHC) system. Subjects were young (< or = 3-yr-old) and aged (10- to 15-yr-old) chinchillas. CDP thresholds and input/output (I/O) functions were measured before and after exposure to 95 dB or 106 dB SPL low-frequency noise. The results indicate that (a) aging in the chinchilla is associated with significant elevations of CDP thresholds and depression of CDP I/O functions, (b) noise exposures cause equivalent CDP threshold elevations and amplitude reductions in young animals with normal hearing and older animals with AHL, and (c) CDP threshold and amplitude measures provide information that complements evoked potentials measured from the auditory midbrain.     

The role of intermittence in PTS

Exposure of chinchillas to noise that is continuous results in auditory damage that is a function of the total energy of the exposure, provided that a critical exposure is not exceeded. Breaking a continuous exposure into 45 exposure periods given once a day Monday through Friday for 9 weeks (an interrupted exposure) is shown to result in a slight reduction in damage, but breaking each of the 45 daily exposures into short noise bursts presented at regular intervals (interrupted and intermittent exposures) reduces the damage more significantly. The shorter the noise bursts, the greater will be the reduction in damage. Too few data are available to establish a principle that will predict correctly the amount of reduction afforded by a particular temporal pattern; while the "equal energy" principle predicts no reduction at all, the "mean level" principle derived from studies of temporary threshold shifts (e.g., a noise at 80 dB half the time and at 100 dB half the time has a mean level of 90 dB and will have the same effect as a continuous 90-dB noise) predicts too much reduction.     

Amplitude modulation thresholds in chinchillas with high-frequency hearing loss

Estimates of auditory temporal resolution were obtained from normal chinchillas using sinusoidally amplitude modulated noise. Afterwards, the animals were exposed to noise whose bandwidth was progressively increased toward the low frequencies in octave steps. The first exposure was to an octave band of noise centered at 8 kHz. Three additional octave bands of noise were subsequently added to the original exposure in order to progressively increase the extent of the high-frequency hearing loss. The first exposure produced a temporary hearing loss of 50 to 60 dB near 8 kHz and elevated the amplitude modulation thresholds primarily at intermediate (128 Hz) modulation frequencies. Successive noise exposures extended the temporary hearing loss toward lower frequencies, but there was little further deterioration in the amplitude modulation function until the last exposure when the hearing loss spread to 1 kHz. The degradation in the amplitude modulation function observed after the last exposure, however, was due to a reduction in the sensation level of the test signal rather than to a decrease in the hearing bandwidth. The results of this study suggest that the high-frequency regions of the cochlea may be important for temporal resolution.     

Kurtosis corrected sound pressure level as a noise metric for risk assessment of occupational noises

Current noise guidelines use an energy-based noise metric to predict the risk of hearing loss, and thus ignore the effect of temporal characteristics of the noise. The practice is widely considered to underestimate the risk of a complex noise environment, where impulsive noises are embedded in a steady-state noise. A basic form for noise metrics is designed by combining the equivalent sound pressure level (SPL) and a temporal correction term defined as a function of kurtosis of the noise. Several noise metrics are developed by varying this basic form and evaluated utilizing existing chinchilla noise exposure data. It is shown that the kurtosis correction term significantly improves the correlation of the noise metric with the measured hearing losses in chinchillas. The average SPL of the frequency components of the noise that define the hearing loss with a kurtosis correction term is identified as the best noise metric among tested. One of the investigated metrics, the kurtosis-corrected A-weighted SPL, is applied to a human exposure study data as a preview of applying the metrics to human guidelines. The possibility of applying the noise metrics to human guidelines is discussed.     

Conditioning-induced protection from impulse noise in female and male chinchillas

Sound conditioning (pre-exposure to a moderate-level acoustic stimulus) can induce resistance to hearing loss from a subsequent traumatic exposure. Most sound conditioning experiments have utilized long-duration tones and noise at levels below 110 dB SPL as traumatic stimuli. It is important to know if sound conditioning can also provide protection from brief, high-level stimuli such as impulses produced by gunfire, and whether there are differences between females and males in the response of the ear to noise. In the present study, chinchillas were exposed to 95 dB SPL octave band noise centered at 0.5 kHz for 6 h/day for 5 days. After 5 days of recovery, they were exposed to simulated M16 rifle fire at a level of 150 dB peak SPL. Animals that were sound conditioned showed less hearing loss and smaller hair cell lesions than controls. Females showed significantly less hearing loss than males at low frequencies, but more hearing loss at 16 kHz. Cochleograms showed slightly less hair cell loss in females than in males. The results show that significant protection from impulse noise can be achieved with a 5-day conditioning regimen, and that there are consistent differences between female and male chinchillas in the response of the cochlea to impulse noise.     

Underwater temporary threshold shift in pinnipeds: effects of noise level and duration

Behavioral psychophysical techniques were used to evaluate the residual effects of underwater noise on the hearing sensitivity of three pinnipeds: a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus), a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), and a northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris). Temporary threshold shift (TTS), defined as the difference between auditory thresholds obtained before and after noise exposure, was assessed. The subjects were exposed to octave-band noise centered at 2500 Hz at two sound pressure levels: 80 and 95 dB SL (re: auditory threshold at 2500 Hz). Noise exposure durations were 22, 25, and 50 min. Threshold shifts were assessed at 2500 and 3530 Hz. Mean threshold shifts ranged from 2.9-12.2 dB. Full recovery of auditory sensitivity occurred within 24 h of noise exposure. Control sequences, comprising sham noise exposures, did not result in significant mean threshold shifts for any subject. Threshold shift magnitudes increased with increasing noise sound exposure level (SEL) for two of the three subjects. The results underscore the importance of including sound exposure metrics (incorporating sound pressure level and exposure duration) in order to fully assess the effects of noise on marine mammal hearing.     

Temporary threshold shift in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) exposed to intermittent tones

Temporary threshold shift (TTS) was measured in a bottlenose dolphin exposed to a sequence of four 3-kHz tones with durations of 16 s and sound pressure levels (SPLs) of 192 dB re 1 μPa. The tones were separated by 224 s of silence, resulting in duty cycle of approximately 7%. The resulting growth and recovery of TTS were compared to experimentally measured TTS in the same subject exposed to single, continuous tones with similar SPLs. The data confirm the potential for accumulation of TTS across multiple exposures and for recovery of hearing during the quiet intervals between exposures. The degree to which various models could predict the growth of TTS across multiple exposures was also examined.     

确定峰度非高斯海洋环境噪声模型研究

针对非高斯海洋环境噪声仿真问题,利用对衰减正弦信号均匀采样方法,产生了具有特定谱特性同时具有特定峰度值的非高斯海洋环境噪声序列。在理论仿真条件下,通过对低峰度值和高峰度值的分别讨论发现,当峰度值高于3.0时总可以仿真得到较好的结果,而当峰度值低于3.0时,需通过降采样或降阶的方法解决不能仿真的问题。4种海上试验条件下的仿真结果表明,在安静环境、单一航船干扰环境、气枪声源干扰环境以及冲击性干扰环境下,都可以产生与目标谱特性、统计特性几乎相同的非高斯海洋环境噪声序列。