The contribution of critical realism as an underpinning philosophy for OR/MS and systems

Many issues are under debate as to the philosophical nature of OR/MS: is it science or technology? Is it natural or social science? Can it be realist as well as being interpretivist? There are also many debates within the philosophy of science itself. This paper proposes that a particular account of the philosophy of science, known as ‘critical realism’, is especially suitable as an underpinning of OR/MS. The structure of the argument of this paper is to outline the main positions within the philosophy of science and highlight their problems, especially from the point of view of OR/MS; then to introduce critical realism and to show how it addresses these problems and how it is particularly appropriate for OR/MS; and finally to illustrate this by considering examples of various practical OR methods.     

Justifying the methods of OR

Operational research practitioners use mathematical, statistical, scientific, and other methods to structure and analyse issues in order to advise and assist their clients. In doing so they apply values, follow rules and use methodologies. The paper examines the justification of these methods, values and methodologies. Starting with a conceptual model drawn from the philosophy of science, a justification framework is developed for operational research (OR). Making a distinction between OR academic research and OR practice helps to clarify the issues. OR research is similar to scientific, mathematical and social science research; OR practice, as technology, is closer to engineering. While OR academic researchers will seek justification in the academic discipline within which they choose to work, it is argued that the justification of OR practice lies in its usefulness. For academic OR, justification lies in the justification of mathematics, statistics, science and social science; for practice, it is practitioners who decide what usefulness means in their context.     

OR as technology revisited

In this paper the issue of how OR is related to science and technology is revisited. An earlier argument that a modern view of science and technology offers a better explanation of this relationship than a traditional view is strengthened and developed. Using concepts drawn from the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) a new perspective on OR practice is introduced and shown to offer different insights into the work of OR practitioners and the way OR may be understood in relation to science and technology.     

On the Nature of OR — Entering the Fray

In 1980 a seminar of operational researchers and practitioners from a variety of different countries concluded that there was a remarkable consensus about the way that the process of operational research and systems analysis should be understood and practised. Since then the development of new methods has continued apace, stimulated by interaction with the social sciences and paradigms other than natural science. This paper enters the debate, started in this journal, about the nature of OR's status as science or technology. It recognizes the historic claims of science on OR, but it suggests that for ‘private’ consumption, technology will prove more fruitful, and for ‘public’ consumption practitioners will increasingly adopt the label ‘consultant’. Ackoff's original six-step method of OR is updated to reflect current OR practice. The process suggested acknowledges the importance of context, socio-political factors and the growing role of facilitation.     

The National Coal Board strategic model

It is now six years since an outline of the NCB's strategic model was first published. The period has been one of continuous development and use. As interest in energy policy has grown and research has intensified, more information has become available, and the model has had to adapt both to this changed understanding and the changing requirements of its users. Nevertheless, despite a number of completely new versions of some elements, and two changes in the computer system used, the model is still recognisably the same as the original, which is a tribute to the simple modular structure first chosen. It is an example of what can be called mature OR, where there have been 10 to 15 years experience of addressing essentially the same set of problems. Yet the emphasis changes sufficiently for a continuing search for new approaches and perspectives to be essential. This paper describes the model as it exists today.     

Ethics in OR/MS: past,present and future

The pervasiveness and impact on society and on every day human life of technology has led to a growing awareness that science and technology cannot be considered above or beyond the realm of value judgements and hence of ethics. This is especially true for Operations Research/Management Science (OR/MS), that particular science which is concerned with methodologies for scientifically deciding how to design and operate man-machine systems in an optimal way, usually under conditions requiring the allocation of scarce resources. Here we try to give a historical account of the growing interest for ethics within the OR/MS community from its birth to present days. Starting from attempts to define models and codes of ethical behaviour in our profession, the OR/MS community has arrived at more fundamental questions about the ethical responsibility it faces in a world of growing inequalities and in which the ever greater stress that human activities impose on the environment puts at risk the very survival of human kind. This paper appeared in 4OR 2, 95–110, 2004.     

Beyond problem structuring methods: reinventing the future of OR/MS

Some of the most influential pioneers of OR felt disappointed by the way it developed in the 1960s and 1970s. In their view, the original intention to create a holistic, interdisciplinary science addressed to strategic problems was betrayed. Problem structuring methods (PSMs) have made a significant contribution to taking OR/MS forward again in the direction charted by those pioneers. From a theoretical perspective, however, it is clear that the opportunities provided by PSMs tend to be limited to those drawn from the interpretive paradigm. That is only one way of adding to the positivist/quantitative approach of classical OR/MS. This paper suggests that OR has an obligation to explore a wider range of theoretical options and to convert the possibilities offered by all of these into a form that managers and management scientists can use. Only in this way can OR be reinvented to live up to the ambitions of its founders.     

Logic and rationality in OR interventions: an examination in the light of the ‘critical rationalist’ approach

Historically OR has conceived of itself as a professional practice giving rational, objective advice rooted in the ethos of science. However, the claim of science to rationality and objectivity has wilted under the onslaught of relativist and post-modern attack. One proposed philosophy of science seeks to avoid such problems by adopting a strictly objectivist approach. Critical rationalism (CR), the philosophy originated by Karl Popper, attempts to eliminate all inductive, justificatory and merely subjective claims by the ruthless application of deductive logic. The philosophical development of the CR approach to practice is currently a work-in-progress; however, it is an approach that should on the face of it find favour with OR, particularly for those who want to claim that OR is logically rational. The paper, drawing on the work of David Miller, explores how such an approach can be applied in the OR context. It concludes that although as CR suggests it may be possible to drive out inductive and justificatory claims in OR, subjective choice is an essential element of managerial decision-making and cannot be ignored or assumed away. The paper identifies some of the challenges that confront philosophers of practice if OR is to take the insights of CR to heart, suggests some possible responses, and identifies areas for future research.     

Writing practitioner case studies to help behavioural OR researchers ground their theories: application of the mangle perspective

Behavioural research into the practice of OR needs to be grounded. Case studies written by practitioners can potentially help address this need but currently most do not. The paper explores a way of describing OR projects that place the emphasis on the ‘actors’ who provide the motivating force and the consequences of their actions. The ‘mangle’ perspective focuses on the dynamic intertwining of people, technology and concepts; this can provide the basis for an insightful narrative describing the reality of the project in terms of the planned approach, the problems met and the outcomes. Two examples are given, one of a conventional model building exercise, the second of a ‘soft OR’ intervention: both describe projects conducted by practitioners for commercial purposes. It is concluded that, by using the mangle perspective, the OR case writer can winnow the wheat from the chaff in order to write a succinct informative narrative, a narrative that could be utilized by behavioural OR (BOR) researchers. It is further concluded that BOR researchers should engage with ‘practice theory’ to deepen their understanding of what actually happens in projects.     

The application of OR techniques for the prediction and understanding of damages caused by seismic events

This paper analyses factors that account for differences in the damages suffered by buildings in an earthquake. Various OR techniques and identification techniques have been used.This study allows a better understanding of the role that local intensity of the earthquake and epicentre play, and a suitable statistical model of the phenomen is formulated and tested. More important, it is shown that this statistical model may be reinterpreted as a causal model in structural engineering, and various aspects of this representation are discussed.     

OR as rational choice: a decision and game theory perspective

Social science disciplines have used decision theory and game theory to provide metaphorical understanding and analytical rigour in their particular domains. The paper explores whether a similar perspective can be applied to operational research (OR) in order to provide an integrating theme for both theory and practice. It is argued that, while the methods of OR are instrumentally rational, OR interventions embrace non-instrumental aspects as well. A case study of an application of decision theory is described and analysed from a decision and game theory (DGT) perspective. The case demonstrates that although the model developed was instrumental, the structure and content of the model reflected the normative and communicative aspects of the decision context. The paper concludes that OR could use a DGT perspective as a conceptual framework for the teaching, research and practice of OR.     

A review of the recent contribution of systems thinking to operational research and management science

The systems approach, or systems thinking, has been intimately connected with the development of OR and management science initially through the work of founders such as Churchman and Ackoff and latterly through innovations such as soft systems. In this paper we have undertaken a review of the contribution that systems thinking has been making more recently, especially to the practice of OR. Systems thinking is a discipline in its own right, with many theoretical and methodological developments, but it is also applicable to almost any problem area because of its generality, and so such a review must always be selective. We have looked at the literature from both a theoretical and an applications orientation. In the first part we consider the main systems theories and methodologies in terms of their recent developments and also their applications. This covers: the systems approach, complexity theory, cybernetics, system dynamics, soft OR and PSMs, critical systems and multimethodology. In the second part we review the main domains of application: strategy, information systems, organisations, production and operations, ecology and agriculture, and medicine and health. Our overall conclusion is that while systems may not be well established institutionally, in terms of academic departments, it is incredibly healthy in terms of the quantity and variety of its applications.     

Aims and Objectives in the Teaching of Mathematics to non‐Mathematicians∗

After a discussion on what is a non‐mathematician and what is an applied mathematician, aims that have been variously suggested are presented and discussed. Attention is drawn to the importance of an understanding of model building and of mathematics as the language of science, and this leads to a plea for co‐operation between the mathematician and the non‐mathematician. Reference is made to the relevance of the ‘New Mathematics’ and to the demand for mathematical rigour, and the paper closes with a brief discussion of the importance of detailed objectives.

     

Ethics in OR/MS: Past,present and future

The pervasiveness and impact on society and on every day human life of technology has led to a growing awareness that science and technology cannot be considered above or beyond the realm of value judgements and hence of ethics. This is especially true for Operations Research / Management Science (OR/MS), that particular science which is concerned with methodologies for scientifically deciding how to design and operate man-machine systems in an optimal way, usually under conditions requiring the allocation of scarce resources. Here we try to give a historical account of the growing interest for ethics within the OR/MS community from its birth to present days. Starting from attempts to define models and codes of ethical behaviour in our profession, the OR/MS community has arrived at more fundamental questions about the ethical responsibility it faces in a world of growing inequalities and in which the ever greater stress that human activities impose on the environment puts at risk the very survival of human kind.     

Operational Research in Organizations: a Metaphorical Analysis

The range of possible ways in which OR influences and is influenced by the organization in which it takes place is great. These influences will be due in part to the nature of the organization involved and such factors cannot be considered in general. However, other factors will have their roots in the generic processes and character found in OR and organizations. A potentially useful way of investigating these factors is to ask what part OR plays in an organization. The particular view held of organizations and of the behaviour of people within them will determine how this aspect of OR is understood. In this paper Morgan's method of organizational analysis based upon the idea of metaphor is adopted to explore the place of OR in organizations. This approach explicitly uses a multi-faceted style of analysis, which is seen to be preferable to one which is more partial in its treatment of organization.     

Preservice Mathematics Teachers' Ambiguous Views of Technology

While the nature of mathematics and the nature of science have received much attention, there is a lack of research on the nature of technology. This study sought to investigate preservice teachers' perceptions about the nature of technology and its role in mathematics education and society. Based on two philosophical theories of technology, the author analyzed 22 preservice teachers' philosophy statements on educational technology and in‐depth interviews with 5 of them. The findings reveal that the teachers had ambiguous notions about the characteristics of technology, which were contingent on contexts of technology use, human–machine relationships, and other factors. However, in most cases, they had an instrumental view of technology and a techno‐centric mindset. Although the participating teachers were encouraged to reflect on broad socio‐cultural issues associated with technology, most of them did not have a linguistic and conceptual framework from which to examine thoroughly how technology might influence human consciousness. As the educational technology and teacher education communities have broadened their understanding of technology and what it takes for an organizational change, preservice teachers need adequate opportunities to explore the pedagogical, epistemological, ontological, and cultural implications of the educational use of technology.     

A social perspective on technology-enhanced mathematical learning: from collaboration to performance

This paper documents both developments in the technologies used to promote learning mathematics and the influence on research of social theories of learning, through reference to the activities of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI), and argues that these changes provide opportunity for the reconceptualization of our understanding of mathematical learning. Firstly, changes in technology are traced from discipline-specific computer-based software through to Web 2.0-based learning tools. Secondly, the increasing influence of social theories of learning on mathematics education research is reviewed by examining the prevalence of papers and presentations, which acknowledge the role of social interaction in learning, at ICMI conferences over the past 20 years. Finally, it is argued that the confluence of these developments means that it is necessary to re-examine what it means to learn and do mathematics and proposes that it is now possible to view learning mathematics as an activity that is performed rather than passively acquired.