Visualization of shock waves around hypersonic spiked blunt cones using electric discharge

The hypersonic flow fields around a 120⁰ apex angle blunt cone fitted with spikes have been visualized using electric discharge technique at Mach 5.75 in a hypersonic shock tunnel. The blunt cone has been fitted with a flat tipped spike and a flat aerodisc tipped spike assembly. The length of the aerodisc tipped spike assembly has been kept equal to the model base diameter (L/D=1) and the length of the flat tipped spike has been kept at 12mm. The flow field pictures reveal all the salient features of the flow fields around the spiked bodies. Numerical simulations carried out to complement the experiments agree well with the experimental pictures.     

基于流动显示的压缩拐角流动结构定量研究

在Ma = 3.0的超声速风洞中, 采用NPLS技术对上游边界层为层流的25° 压缩拐角进行了流动显示实验, 获得了压缩拐角的精细流动结构, 边界层、剪切层和激波等结构清晰可见. 基于流动显示数据, 采用间歇性、空间相关性和分形分析对流动结构进行了定量研究, 计算了边界层和分离区的间歇因子分布, 获取了边界层中拟序结构和结构角的大小, 给出了边界层分形维数的分布, 并与Ringuette和Bookey等的实验结果进行比较, 阐述了压缩拐角流动结构的定量特征.     

Double-walled carbon nanocones: stability and electronic structure

We have applied first-principles calculations, based on the density functional theory, toinvestigate the stability and electronic properties of double-walled carbon nanocones,60°60°, 120°120° and 60°120° with different rotation anglesbetween the walls. We have shown that the most favorable double-walled nanocone studiedhere is that of angles of 60°60°, with rotation angle of 36° and distance between apexes of 4.22 Å.We have found that, the interaction between the walls of rotated double-walled nanoconesintroduce geometric distortion in gap states, such as in Fermi level. These results shouldhave consequences on the field emission properties of double-walled carbon nanocones.Additionally, we also investigated the spin polarization of such structures, and we havefound unpaired electrons, which induces a total spin from 1 and 1/2 for 60°60° and 60°120° double cones, respectively.     

超声速层流/湍流压缩拐角流动结构的实验研究

在Ma=3.0的超声速风洞中, 分别对上游边界层为超声速层流和湍流, 压缩角度为25°和28°的压缩拐角流动进行了实验研究. 采用纳米粒子示踪平面激光散射(NPLS)技术获得了流场整体和局部区域的精细结构, 边界层、剪切层、分离激波、回流区和再附激波等典型结构清晰可见, 测量了超声速层流压缩拐角壁面的压力系数. 从时间平均的流场结构中测量出分离激波、再附激波的角度和再附后重新发展的边界层的增长情况, 通过分析时间相关的流场NPLS图像, 可以发现流场结构随时间的演化特性. 实验结果表明: 在25°的压缩角度下, 超声速层流压缩拐角流动发生了典型的分离, 边界层迅速增长失稳转捩, 并引起一道诱导激波, 流场中出现了K-H涡、剪切层和微弱压缩波结构, 而超声速湍流压缩拐角流动没有出现分离, 湍流边界层始终表现为附着状态; 在28° 的压缩角度下, 超声速层流压缩拐角流动进一步分离, 回流区范围明显扩大, 诱导激波、分离激波向上游移动, 再附激波向下游移动, 分离区流动结构复杂, 相比之下, 超声速湍流压缩拐角流动的回流区范围明显较小, 边界层增长缓慢, 流场中没有出现诱导激波、K-H涡和压缩波, 流动分离区域的结构也相对简单, 但分离激波的强度则明显更强. 关键词： 压缩拐角 层流 湍流 流动结构     

Experimental studies on the interaction of jets with the vortex wake of slender bodies

An experimental study has been conducted to examine the low-speed aerodynamic characteristics of a pair of circular jets behaviour in the vortex-wake of a blunted cone cylinderbody combination with and without a 70° leading edge sweep delta wing. The induced flow-field was examined via two-dimensional hot-wire anemometry surveys. Comparisons were made between the induced wake with and without the circular jets. The flow field over the models was visualized using smoke and oil flow visualization. The jet-pair was found to undergo severe distortion within a very short distance from the nozzle exits. The shape of the jets was shown to change considerably when placed in the vortex wake flow field of the models, which caused the jet-pair to spread and become entrained within the vortices and wake created by the models.     

激波与层流/湍流边界层相互作用实验研究

在超声速风洞中,分别对层流和湍流来流条件下的边界层和斜激波(激波强度足以引起流动分离)相互干扰进行了实验研究,利用纳米粒子示踪平面激光散射(NPLS)技术获得了两种条件下流场的精细结构图像;利用粒子图像测速(PIV)技术获得了两种条件下流场的速度场和涡量场;综合运用NPLS结果和PIV结果对比分析了两种流动的瞬时流动结构和时间相关性,实验结果表明:层流边界层内的分离区呈现出狭长的条状,而湍流边界层内分离区呈现出较规则的椭圆;在入射激波上游距入射点较远的位置,层流边界层外围拟序结构会诱导出一系列压缩波系,进而汇聚成空间位置不稳定的诱导激波,而湍流边界层则是在入射激波上游较近的地方直接形成较强且稳定的诱导激波;在入射激波下游,层流边界层内的膨胀区域较小且急促,膨胀后产生的再附激波很弱,而湍流边界层内的膨胀区域较大,膨胀后产生的激波较强。     

基于雷诺应力模型的高精度分离涡模拟方法

基于Speziale-Sarkar-Gatski/Launder-Reece-Rodi(SSG/LRR)-ω雷诺应力模型发展了一类分离涡模拟方法,结合高精度加权紧致非线性格式在典型翼型及三角翼算例中进行了验证,并和传统基于线性涡粘模型的分离涡模拟方法进行了对比.结果表明:基于SSG/LRR-ω模型的分离涡模拟方法,提高了原雷诺应力模型对非定常分离湍流的模拟能力;同时相比于传统基于线性涡粘模型的分离涡模拟方法,尤其是在翼型最大升力迎角和三角翼涡破裂迎角附近,该方法在平均气动力预测的准确度、分离湍流模拟的精细度等方面更加优秀.     

非设计工况下动静叶相互干扰的非定常流动特性

本文对非设计工况下动静叶栅相互干扰的非定常流动特性进行数值研究。非设计工况主要考虑大攻角下的分离 流动,动静叶干扰的非定常流动的数值求解在N—S方程的基础上采用分区计算的方法来完成。数值分析结果揭示了在分 离流动本身的非定常特性与动静叶栅相互干扰的非定常特性的双重影响下的流场情况。     

来流边界层效应下斜坡诱导的斜爆轰波

以超声速预混气中的斜爆轰波为研究对象,对其在来流边界层效应下的特性进行了实验研究.在马赫数为3的超声速预混风洞中,通过斜坡诱导产生了斜爆轰波.当来流的当量比较低时,预混气中产生的是化学反应锋面与激波面非耦合的激波诱导燃烧现象.此时边界层分离区中的化学反应放热将使分离区尺度显著增大,流场非定常性显著增强,激波位置剧烈振荡.当来流的当量比较高时,预混气将产生斜爆轰波.此时边界层分离区会影响到斜爆轰波起爆时的形态.在小尺度分离区下,斜爆轰波起爆时呈突跃结构(有横波);在中等尺度分离区下,流场固有的非定常性使斜爆轰波呈间歇突跃结构;在大尺度分离区下,斜爆轰波起爆则呈完全的平滑结构(无横波).     

Flow visualization and aerodynamic-force measurement of a dragonfly-type model

An unsteady flow visualization and force measurement were carried out in order to investigate the effects of the reduced frequency of a dragonfly-type model. The flow visualization of the wing wake region was conducted by using a smoke-wire technique. An electronic device was mounted below the test section in order to find the exact position angle of the wing for the visualization. A load-cell was employed in measuring aerodynamic forces generated by a plunging motion of the experimental model. To find the period of the flapping motion in real time, trigger signals were also collected by passing laser beam signals through the gear hole. Experimental conditions were as follows: the incidence angles of the foreand hind-wing were 0° and 10°, respectively, and the reduced frequencies were 0.150 and 0.225. The freestream velocities of the flow visualization and force measurement were 1.0 and 1.6m/sec, respectively, which correspond to Reynolds numbers of 3.4 × 10³ and 2.9 × 10³. The variations of the flow patterns and phase-averaged lift and the thrust coefficients during one cycle of the wing motion were presented. Results showed that the reduced frequency was closely related to the flow pattern that determined flight efficiency, and the maximum lift coefficient and lift coefficient per unit of time increased with reduced frequency.     

Aerodynamic characteristics and parameters of the cone base region at transonic speeds

Aerodynamic characteristics of a sharp cone with the semi-apex angle of 15° are investigated by the methods of ballistic modelling in the Mach number range from 0.5 to 3.7, which are computed under the assumption of their almost linear behavior at the angles of attack up to 10°. Using the direct shadow pictures the geometric characteristics of near wake are measured and analyzed within the considered transonic and supersonic range. They provide the basis for semi-empirical computation of integral parameters of the base cavity: the pressure, density, and temperature.     

Fluid flow visualization by three-dimensionally reconstructed tracer path lines

The development of a measurement system for the visualization, topological classification and quantitative analysis of complex flows in large-scale wind tunnel experiments is described. A new approach is sought whereby the topological features of the flow, e.g. stream lines, separation and reattachment regions, stagnation points and vortex lines are extracted directly and are preferably visualized in real-time in a virtual wind tunnel environment. The system is based on a stereo arrangement of two CCD cameras. A frame rate of 120 f/s allows measurements at high flow velocities. Helium filled soap bubbles are used as tracer particles. The present paper describes a simple camera calibration procedure for large measurement environments and examines the problem of fast and accurate reconstruction of path lines in three dimensions, which will enable true three-dimensional and time-resolved fluid flow visualization. Experimentally obtained visualization results for a free-stream flow, flow around a circular plate and flow over a delta wing are presented.     

Experimental investigations of the normal loading of elastic spherical and conical indenters on to elastic flats

Results obtained from a series of experimental investigations are described in which an elastic polyisoprene hemisphere and elastic rubber cones of included angles 60°, 90°, 120° and 150° were loaded normally on to smooth blocks of soda–lime glass and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) containing 10% and 20% by volume of the curing agent. The load versus displacement data were continuously recorded with an instrumented indentation machine. It is shown that, whereas the loading behaviour of the hemisphere on to the blocks of the soda–lime glass and PDMS closely follows the theory of Hertz (see equation (1)), the load versus displacement behaviour of the rubber cones of included angles 60°, 90° and 120° could not be fitted by the Sneddon equation (see equation (5)) for rigid conical indenters loading on to an elastic half-space or by the modified Sneddon equation (see equation (6)) employing the combined moduli of the indenter and the half-space. The discrepancy between the predictions of the modified Sneddon equation and the experimental measurements is very significant, thus confirming our recent concern about the validity of using the modified Sneddon equation for analysing the experimental data obtained from nanoindentation experiments. Estimates of the errors caused by the use of the modified Sneddon equation have been made to further illustrate our contention. On the other hand, the behaviour of the 150° included angle cone loading on to the blocks of rubber, PDMS (1?:?10) and PDMS (1?:?20), has been shown to be particularly striking, as the rubber cone behaved as if it were rigid; moreover, the experimental data are well fitted by the Sneddon equation corresponding to a 150° rigid cone loading on to an elastic half-space. Finally, it has been proposed that, in order to determine the elastic modulus of a very stiff solid (i.e. Young's modulus close to that of the indenter) correctly using the technique of instrumented indentation, including nanoindentation, the included angle of the indenter, made of diamond, should be 150° and the measured load versus displacement data should be analysed using the Sneddon equation corresponding to a rigid cone of an included angle of 150°.     

Flow visualization and local mass transfer studies for turbulent flow in a wind tunnel with chamfered ribs

The paper presents results of flow visualization and mass transfer studies for fully developed turbulent flow of air in a square section wind tunnel with repeated chamfered rib roughness on the bottom of the tunnel (rib head chamfer angles ϕ of -15°, 0°, and 15°; relative roughness pitchp/e = 3, 5, 7.5, and 10). Direct video recordings of flow patterns were made using a simple technique of particles visualization. For the positively chamfered closely spaced ribs (p/e <- 5) vigorous vortex shedding has been seen compared to the square or negatively chamfered ribs, which is found to be a function of the Reynolds number. For the widely spaced ribs, the study shows flow separation at the ribs and reattachment in the inter-rib region. Local mass transfer studies, based on the variation in colour of cobaltous chloride solution impregnated paper due to evaporation of water, showed a significant improvement in mass transfer rate in the recirculating region in the wake of ribs with the change in the chamfer angle from -15° to 15°. The positively chamfered 15° ribs are found to be better than square section ribs atp/e <- 7.5. The performance of negatively chamfered ribs is found to be poor compared to other ribs irrespective of the relative roughness pitch.     

导弹超声速尾退分离干扰特性试验

超/高超声速尾退分离在防热、保形、隐身、多次投放、回收等方面具有明显优势,有望成为高超声速飞行器载荷投放的优选方案。由此面临一类新的多体分离问题：超/高超声速尾退分离问题(aft super/hypersonic ejection separation, ASES)。超/高超声速尾退分离问题本质上是带空腔底部流动与多体分离构成的耦合问题,具有流场结构复杂、气动非定常非线性非对称效应显著的特点。针对超声速尾退分离问题,采用网格测力和轨迹捕获(captive trajectory system, CTS)风洞试验方法探索了尾退分离干扰流场的结构,发现可根据流场结构和舵效变化分为低速-亚声速无激波、高亚声速-跨声速弱激波、超声速激波和准自由流弱干扰4种典型干扰特征,揭示了尾流场影响后不同区域的全弹气动特性和舵效特性以及控制律、攻角、高度和Mach数对分离位移和姿态的影响规律。相关结论将有助于增强对尾退分离问题的认识,对尾退分离技术的工程实践具有参考价值。     

Numerical simulation of asymmetric non-steady-state turbulent flows around supersonic sharp cones

Results are presented of a numerical simulation of turbulent flows around pointed circular supersonic cones at angles of attack α≥3θ_c, where θ_c is the cone half-angle. The problem is solved in the framework of a locally conical approximation of a set of Reynolds’ equations written in terms of mass-averaged quantities with the use of a differential one-parametric turbulence model. The numerical solutions are obtained with the help of an implicit finite-difference unidirectional scheme, with the focus on violation of the symmetry and stationarity of the separated cross flow.     

Development of three-dimensional turbulent separation in the neighborhood of incident crossing shock waves

The results are presented for experimental investigation of the peculiarities of the development of three-dimensional turbulent separated flows on a flat surface for the Mach number M_∞ = 4 and the Reynolds number Re₁ ∼ 55·10⁶ m⁻¹ under the conditions of the flow around two identical cylindrical bodies of revolution of diameter D = 50 mm and the body aspect ratio L _b/D = 5 with conical forebodies with semi-apex angles β_c = 30, 20, 15, and 10° located above plate in parallel to one another and to the flow. The typical stages of the three-dimensional separation development are considered under the reducing distance between the axes of the bodies within the range of Z = Δz/D = 1.06–3.0 at their fixed distance from the surface (Y = Δy/D = 0.96). The topology of limiting streamlines and the peculiarities of pressure fields on the surface as well as the gasdynamic structure of separated flows arising at the interaction of crossing bow shocks propagating from the bodies and at the interaction of secondary disturbances with the boundary layer are analysed.     

Flow morphologies of two shock-accelerated unstable gas cylinders

Our highly reproducible shock-tube experiments examine the interaction of two unstable, compressible gas cylinders accelerated by a planar shock wave. Flow visualization shows that the evolution of the double-cylinder flow morphologies is dominated by two counter-rotating vortex pairs, the strength and behavior of which are observed to be highly sensitive to the initial cylinder separation. Simulations of the flow based on idealized vortex dynamics predict grossly different morphologies than those observed experimentally, suggesting that interactions at early time weaken the inner vortices. A correlation-based ensemble averaging procedure permits decomposition of the concentration field into mean and fluctuating components, providing evidence that energy is transferred from the intermediate to the small scales at late time.     

强梯度复杂流场中的粒子动力学响应试验研究

示踪粒子在(高)超声速流场中的动力学响应是粒子成像测速等粒子示踪测量技术的关键问题之一.现有文献对粒子动力学响应的试验测量往往是通过单个斜激波响应的测量方法.然而,当示踪粒子用于测量高速飞行器发动机内部复杂的激波串流场时,粒子将经历由多道激波导致的速度、压力、黏性等剧烈变化.本文结合目前(高)超声速飞行器的研究热潮,重点关注示踪粒子在应用于发动机内部具有连续激波的复杂流场测量中存在的跟随性评估方面,开展了一系列的相关试验研究.包括测量超声速风洞的喷管出口速度分布以验证测试系统的性能,在马赫4.2和3.0流场中测量了粒子对二维10°和15°单斜劈绕流中的斜激波动力响应,并测量了模拟发动机内部连续梯度的双斜劈粒子斜激波动力响应.结合粒子动力学的理论模型,得到了各状态的粒子弛豫时间、弛豫距离、Stokes数.基于图像方法、统计学规律分析了激波非定常抖动对测量结果的影响,并对测量结果进行了修正.结果显示,相同斜劈角度下,马赫数越高,粒子的弛豫时间、弛豫距离就越大.但是在相同的来流马赫数下,斜劈角度越大,粒子的弛豫时间、弛豫距离反而减小.在强梯度之后由于流场的雷诺数和黏性系数变化剧烈,粒子的跟随性降低了大约5.7%,stokes数增加了约1%.虽然在本文条件下Stokes数仍满足超声速流场对粒子跟随性的要求,但粒子响应的降低无疑是值得关注的,尤其是当其被应用于具有更多连续梯度的复杂流场测量中.