Aeroelastic analysis of helicopter rotor blade in hover using an efficient reduced-order aerodynamic model

This paper presents a coupled flap–lag–torsion aeroelastic stability analysis and response of a hingeless helicopter blade in the hovering flight condition. The boundary element method based on the wake eigenvalues is used for the prediction of unsteady airloads of the rotor blade. The aeroelastic equations of motion of the rotor blade are derived by Galerkin's method. To obtain the aeroelastic stability and response, the governing nonlinear equations of motion are linearized about the nonlinear steady equilibrium positions using small perturbation theory. The equilibrium deflections are calculated through the iterative Newton–Raphson method. Numerical results comprising steady equilibrium state deflections, aeroelastic eigenvalues and time history response about these states for a two-bladed rotor are presented, and some of them are compared with those obtained from a two-dimensional quasi-steady strip aerodynamic theory. Also, the effect of the number of aerodynamic eigenmodes is investigated. The results show that the three-dimensional aerodynamic formulation has considerable impact on the determination of both the equilibrium condition and lead-lag instability.     

Nonlinear aeroelastic stability analysis of wind turbine blade with bending–bending–twist coupling

In this study, the nonlinear aeroelastic stability of wind turbine blade with bending–bending–twist coupling has been investigated for composite thin-walled structure with pretwist angle. The aerodynamic model used here is the differential dynamic stall nonlinear ONERA model. The nonlinear aeroelastic equations are reduced to ordinary equations by Galerkin method, with the aerodynamic force decomposition by strip theory. The nonlinear resulting equations are solved by a time-marching approach, and are linearized by small perturbation about the equilibrium point. The nonlinear aeroelastic stability characteristics are investigated through eigenvalue analysis, nonlinear time domain response, and linearized time domain response.     

Evaluation of linear,inviscid, viscous,and reduced-order modelling aeroelastic solutions of the AGARD 445.6 wing using root locus analysis

Reduced-order modelling (ROM) methods are applied to the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)-based aeroelastic analysis of the AGARD 445.6 wing in order to gain insight regarding well-known discrepancies between the aeroelastic analyses and the experimental results. The results presented include aeroelastic solutions using the inviscid Computational Aeroelasticity Programme–Transonic Small Disturbance (CAP-TSD) code and the FUN3D code (Euler and Navier–Stokes). Full CFD aeroelastic solutions and ROM aeroelastic solutions, computed at several Mach numbers, are presented in the form of root locus plots in order to better reveal the aeroelastic root migrations with increasing dynamic pressure. Important conclusions are drawn from these results including the ability of the linear CAP-TSD code to accurately predict the entire experimental flutter boundary (repeat of analyses performed in the 1980s), that the Euler solutions at supersonic conditions indicate that the third mode is always unstable, and that the FUN3D Navier–Stokes solutions stabilize the unstable third mode seen in the Euler solutions.     

Bifurcation of the Curved Panel in Supersonic Air Flow

采用Galerkin方法建立了超音速气流中二维曲壁板的非线性热气动弹性运动方程。用von Karman大变形理论来考虑曲壁板的大变形。用准定常的一阶活塞理论模拟曲壁板上表面受到的气动力。在不同来流速压和温升条件下,基于分岔理论研究了具有不同初始几何曲率的曲壁板系统对应的定常状态方程（组）的解的个数、性态和动态稳定性,并对方程（组）进行了解曲线的跟踪分析。研究表明,不同条件下,方程组的解特性不同,并且随着初始几何曲率和温升条件的变化,系统的失稳机理发生变化。超音速气流中的二维曲壁板系统存在动态Hopf分岔和静态鞍－结点分岔两种失稳现象,但不会发生热屈曲失稳。     

曲壁板在超音速气流中的分岔特性

采用Galerkin方法建立了超音速气流中二维曲壁板的非线性热气动弹性运动方程。用von Karman大变形理论来考虑曲壁板的大变形。用准定常的一阶活塞理论模拟曲壁板上表面受到的气动力。在不同来流速压和温升条件下,基于分岔理论研究了具有不同初始几何曲率的曲壁板系统对应的定常状态方程（组）的解的个数、性态和动态稳定性,并对方程（组）进行了解曲线的跟踪分析。研究表明,不同条件下,方程组的解特性不同,并且随着初始几何曲率和温升条件的变化,系统的失稳机理发生变化。超音速气流中的二维曲壁板系统存在动态Hopf分岔和静态鞍－结点分岔两种失稳现象,但不会发生热屈曲失稳。      

Nonlinear analysis of members curved in space with warping and Wagner effects

The centroidal axis of a member that is curved in space is generally a space curve. The curvature of the space curve is not necessarily in the direction of either of the principal axes of the cross-section, but can be resolved into components in the directions of both of these principal axes. Hence, a member curved in space is primarily subjected to combined compressive, biaxial bending and torsional actions under vertical (or gravity) loading. In addition, warping actions in particular may occur in curved members with an open thin-walled cross-section, and as the deformations increase, significant interactions of the compressive, biaxial bending and torsional actions occur and profoundly nonlinear deformations are developed in the nonlinear range of structural response. This makes the nonlinear behaviour of a member curved in space very complicated, making it difficult to obtain a consistent differential equation of equilibrium for the nonlinear analysis of members curved in space. In addition, because torsion is one of the primary actions in these members, when the torsional deformations become large, the Wagner effects including both Wagner moment and the conjugate Wagner strain terms are increasingly significant and need to be included in the nonlinear analysis. This paper takes advantage of the merits of so-called “geometrically exact beam theory” and the weak form formulation of the differential equations of equilibrium in beam theory, and it develops consistent differential equations of equilibrium for the nonlinear elastic analysis of members curved in space with warping and Wagner effects. The application of the nonlinear differential equations of equilibrium to various problems is illustrated.     

多柔体系统碰撞动力学研究综述

多柔体系统碰撞动力学研究具有重要的研究价值和工程实际意义,本文针对多柔体系统碰撞动力学研究中的几个基本问题进行了全面的分析和评述,其中包括多柔体系统动力学方程的描述、碰撞模型的建立、铰接间隙引起的碰撞问题、数值算法、实验研究、控制等几个方面,并根据目前的发展现状和研究中存在的问题,指出了今后多柔体系统动力学碰撞研究中的发展方向      

Aeroelastic response of a coupled rotor/fuselage system in hovering and forward flight

Summary The aeroelastic response analysis of a coupled rotor/fuselage system is approached by iterative solution of the blade aeroelastic response in the non-inertial reference frame fixed on the hub, and the periodic response of the fuselage in the inertial reference frame. A model of the coupled system hinged with the flap and lag hinges, the pitching bearing which may not coincide with the hinges, and the sweeping-blade configuration is established. The moderate-deflection beam theory and the two-dimensional quasi-steady aerodynamic model are employed to model the aeroelastic blade, all the kinetic and inertial factors are taken into account in a unified manner. A five-nodes, 15-DOFs pre-twisted nonuniform beam element is developed for the discretization of the blade, three rigid-body-motion DOFs are introduced for the motion of the hinges and the bearing. The Hamilton's principle is employed to evaluate the equation of motion of the blade. The derived nonlinear ordinary differential equations with time-dependent periodic coefficients are solved by a modified quasi-linearization method, which is developed for the higher DOF periodic system. The resulting periodic forces and moments exerted on the fuselage by all the blades are evaluated every time, when the converged nonlinear periodic response of the blade is obtained under the consideration of the equilibrium of the blades. The fuselage structure is simplified to be a beam structure, the governing equation is established in the inertial reference frame and a two-nodes beam element is used to discretize the flexible fuselage. The periodic response of the fuselage is solved by a simple shooting method. The iteration of the rotor/fuselage response is continued, until the aeroelastic responses of the blade and the fuselage converge simultaneously. Both the hovering and the forward flight states can be considered. The results of a computed numerical example by the developed program are presented to verify in practice the economy of the modeling as well as the reliability and efficiency of the corresponding solving methods. Received 4 May 1998; accepted 11 August 1998     

Reduced order nonlinear aeroelasticity of swept composite wings using compressible indicial unsteady aerodynamics

Nonlinear dynamic aeroelasticity of composite wings in compressible flows is investigated. To provide a reasonable model for the problem, the composite wing is modeled as a thin walled beam (TWB) with circumferentially asymmetric stiffness layup configuration. The structural model considers nonlinear strain displacement relations and a number of non-classical effects, such as transverse shear and warping inhibition. Geometrically nonlinear terms of up to third order are retained in the formulation. Unsteady aerodynamic loads are calculated according to a compressible model, described by indicial function approximations in the time domain. The aeroelastic system of equations is augmented by the differential equations governing the aerodynamics lag states to derive the final explicit form of the coupled fluid-structure equations of motion. The final nonlinear governing aeroelastic system of equations is solved using the eigenvectors of the linear structural equations of motion to approximate the spatial variation of the corresponding degrees of freedom in the Ritz solution method. Direct time integrations of the nonlinear equations of motion representing the full aeroelastic system are conducted using the well-known Runge–Kutta method. A comprehensive insight is provided over the effect of parameters such as the lamination fiber angle and the sweep angle on the stability margins and the limit cycle oscillation behavior of the system. Integration of the interpolation method employed for the evaluation of compressible indicial functions at any Mach number in the subsonic compressible range to the derivation process of the third order nonlinear aeroelastic system of equations based on TWB theory is done for the first time. Results show that flutter speeds obtained by the incompressible unsteady aerodynamics are not conservative and as the backward sweep angle of the wing is increased, post-flutter aeroelastic response of the wing becomes more well-behaved.     

A Flow-on-Manifold Formulation of Differential-Algebraic Equations

We derive a flow formulation of differential-algebraic equations (DAEs), implicit differential equations whose dynamics are restricted by algebraic constraints. Using the framework of derivatives arrays and the strangeness-index, we identify the systems that are uniquely solvable on a particular set of initial values and thus possess a flow, the mapping that uniquely relates a given initial value with the solution through this point. The flow allows to study system properties like invariant sets, stability, monotonicity or positivity. For DAEs, the flow further provides insights into the manifold onto which the system is bound to and into the dynamics on this manifold. Using a projection approach to decouple the differential and algebraic components, we give an explicit representation of the flow that is stated in the original coordinate space. This concept allows to study DAEs whose dynamics are restricted to special subsets in the variable space, like a cone or the nonnegative orthant.     

A new development of the dynamic procedure in large-eddy simulation based on a Finite Volume integral approach. Application to stratified turbulence

A Finite Volume-based large-eddy simulation method is proposed along with a suitable extension of the dynamic modelling procedure that takes into account for the integral formulation of the governing filtered equations. Discussion about the misleading interpretation of FV in some literature is addressed. Then, the classical Germano identity is congruently rewritten in such a way that the determination of the modelling parameters does not require any arbitrary averaging procedure and thus retains a fully local character. The numerical modelling of stratified turbulence is the specific problem considered in this study, as an archetypal of simple geophysical flows. The original scaling formulation of the dynamic sub-grid scale model proposed by Wong and Lilly (Phys. Fluids 6(6), 1994) is suitably extended to the present integral formulation. This approach is preferred with respect to traditional ones since the eddy coefficients can be independently computed by avoiding the addition of unjustified buoyancy production terms in the constitutive equations. Simple scaling arguments allow us not to use the equilibrium hypothesis according to which the dissipation rate should equal the sub-grid scale energy production. A careful a priori analysis of the relevance of the test filter shape as well as the filter-to-grid ratio is reported. Large-eddy simulation results are a posteriori compared with a reference pseudo-spectral direct numerical solution that is suitably post-filtered in order to have a meaningful comparison. In particular, the spectral distribution of kinetic and thermal energy as well as the viscosity and diffusivity sub-grid scale profiles are illustrated. The good performances of the proposed method, in terms of both evolutions of global quantities and statistics, are very promising for the future development and application of the method.     

Post-critical analysis of highly deformable Joined Wings: The concept of snap-divergence as a characterization of the instability

Theoretical modeling of the aeroelastic static instability with the possibility of tracing post-critical branches (via arc length technique) in the framework of Joined Wings has never been presented before. A complete formulation of the numerical iterative method of solution of the aeroelastic equations is presented.The true critical condition is compared with the divergence speed evaluated by solving an eigenvalue problem about a steady state equilibrium, showing how this last approach may be unreliable and even nonconservative.This work also explores the theoretical implications of using mechanical loads to mimic the real loading conditions.A physical interpretation based on the aeroelastic effects, overconstrained nature of the system, and the bending/torsion coupling, is provided to interpret the conditions that lead to the snap-divergence.     

Limit cycle oscillations of rectangular cantilever wings containing cubic nonlinearity in an incompressible flow

Limit cycle oscillations (LCO) as well as nonlinear aeroelastic analysis of rectangular cantilever wings with a cubic nonlinearity are investigated. Aeroelastic equations of a rectangular cantilever wing with two degrees of freedom in an incompressible potential flow are presented in the time domain. The harmonic balance method is modified to calculate the LCO frequency and amplitude for rectangular wings. In order to verify the derived formulation, flutter boundaries are obtained via a linear analysis of the derived system of equations for five different cases and compared with experimental data. Satisfactory results are gained through this comparison. The problem of finding the LCO frequency and amplitude is solved via applying the two methods discussed for two different cases with hardening cubic nonlinearities. The results from first-, third- and fifth-order harmonic balance methods are compared with the results of an exact numerical solution. A close agreement is obtained between these harmonic balance methods and the exact numerical solution of the governing aeroelastic equations. Finally, the nonlinear aeroelastic analysis of a rectangular cantilever wing with a softening nonlinearity is studied.     

Stochastic response determination of structural systems modeled via dependent coordinates: a frequency domain treatment based on generalized modal analysis

Generalized independent coordinates are typically utilized within an analytical dynamics framework to model the motion of structural and mechanical engineering systems. Nevertheless, for complex systems, such as multi-body structures, an explicit formulation of the equations of motion by utilizing generalized, independent, coordinates can be a daunting task. In this regard, employing a set of redundant coordinates can facilitate the formulation of the governing dynamics equations. In this setting, however, standard response analysis techniques cannot be applied in a straightforward manner. For instance, defining and determining a transfer function within a frequency domain response analysis framework is challenging due to the presence of singular matrices, and thus, the machinery of generalized matrix inverses needs to be employed. An efficient frequency domain response analysis methodology for structural dynamical systems modeled via dependent coordinates is developed herein. This is done by resorting to the Moore–Penrose generalized matrix inverse in conjunction with a recently proposed extended modal analysis treatment. It is shown that not only the formulation is efficient in drastically reducing the computational cost when compared to a straightforward numerical evaluation of the involved generalized inverses, but also facilitates the derivation and implementation of the celebrated random vibration input–output frequency domain relationship between the excitation and the response power spectrum matrices. The validity of the methodology is demonstrated by considering a multi-degree-of-freedom shear type structure and a multi-body structural system as numerical examples.

     

多体系统动力学方程违约修正的数值计算方法

多体系统动力学方程为微分代数方程,一般将其转化成常微分方程组进行数值计算,在数值积分的过程中约束方程的违约会逐渐增大.本文对具有完整、定常约束的多体系统,在修改的带乘子Lagrange正则形式的方程的基础上,根据Baumgarte提出的违约修正的方法,给出了一种多体系统微分代数方程违约修正法和系统的动力学方程的矩阵表达式.通过对曲柄-滑块机构的数值仿真,计算结果表明本文给出的方法在计算精度和计算效率上好于Baumgarte提出的两种违约修正的方法.     

激波主导流动下壁板的热气动弹性稳定性理论分析

针对激波主导流动下弹性壁板的热气动弹性稳定性分析问题,建立了基于当地活塞流理论的分析模型,并用数值仿真方法来验证其正确性. 首先基于Hamilton原理和Von-Karman大变形理论,建立壁板的热气动弹性运动方程,其中假设壁板受热后温度均匀分布,激波前后区域的气动力模型采用当地一阶活塞流理论;利用Galerkin方法将具有连续参数系统的偏微分颤振方程离散为有限个自由度的常微分方程;基于李雅普诺夫间接法将非线性颤振方程组在平衡位置处进行线化,再用Routh-Hurwits判据来判断线性系统的稳定性,从而来推论出非线性颤振系统的气动弹性稳定性. 在时域中采用龙格--库塔法对非线性颤振方程进行数值积分,得到壁板非线性颤振响应的时间历程,与理论分析结果进行对比. 研究结果表明,壁板受到斜激波冲击时,更容易发生颤振失稳,并且激波强度越大,极限环幅值和频率越大;激波主导流场中的壁板失稳边界不同于传统单纯超声速气流中壁板颤振的失稳边界;只有在斜激波前后不同的动压值都满足颤振稳定性边界的条件下,壁板才可能保持其气动弹性稳定性.      

An efficient method for nonlinear aeroelasticy of slender wings

This paper aims the nonlinear aeroelastic analysis of slender wings using a nonlinear structural model coupled with the linear unsteady aerodynamic model. High aspect ratio and flexibility are the specific characteristic of this type of wings. Wing flexibility, coupled with long wingspan can lead to large deflections during normal flight operation of an aircraft; therefore, a wing in vertical/forward-afterward/torsional motion using a third-order form of nonlinear general flexible Euler–Bernoulli beam equations is used for structural modeling. Unsteady linear aerodynamic strip theory based on the Wagner function is used for determination of aerodynamic loading on the wing. Combining these two types of formulation yields nonlinear integro-differentials aeroelastic equations. Using the Galerkin’s method and a mode summation technique, the governing equations will be solved by introducing a numerical method without the need to adding any aerodynamic state space variables and the corresponding equations related to these variables of the problem. The obtained equations are solved to predict the aeroelastic response of the problem. The obtained results for a test case are compared with those of some other works and show a good agreement between results.