Characterization of natural organic colorants in historical and art objects by high‐performance liquid chromatography

High‐performance liquid chromatography plays an important role in analysis of historical organic colorants. A number of papers have been published in this field over the last 30 years. Classification of the most commonly used natural dyes and an overview of high‐performance liquid chromatography methods with main focus on recent works (2008 to the beginning of 2014) are provided. The review deals with an entire analytical protocol covering sample preparation, chromatographic separation, and suitable detection (UV/visible and fluorescent spectroscopy and mass spectrometric techniques). High‐performance liquid chromatography has been successfully used in the complete characterization of some organic dyestuffs present in historical and art objects. The possibilities and difficulties for identification of natural sources of historical colorants are also discussed.     

Perfluoroalkyl ketones: novel derivatization products for the sensitive determination of fatty acids by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in electron impact and negative chemical ionization modes

Analytically useful pentafluoro ketone derivatives of fatty acids are described. The gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric characteristics of these new derivatives are compared with those of methyl, trimethylsilyl and pentafluorobenzyl esters. Pentafluoro ketones exhibit excellent chromatographic properties and significantly shorter chromatographic retention times than these other esters. The electron impact mass spectra of these new compounds show informative acylium ions, whose intensity decreases with the degree of unsaturation of the parent fatty acid. The formation of strong and informative fragment ions in negative chemical ionization (CH(4)) mass spectra of pentafluoro ketone derivatives allows the detection and the characterization (length of the chain and number of double bonds) of fatty acids at trace levels (femtomole), even in the case of polyunsaturated compounds. The scope and limitations of this new derivatization technique are also discussed.     

Analysis of small carbohydrates in several bioactive botanicals by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry

Bioactive botanicals contain natural compounds with specific biological activity, such as antibacterial, antioxidant, immune stimulating, and taste improving. A full characterization of the chemical composition of these botanicals is frequently necessary. A study of small carbohydrates from the plant materials of 18 bioactive botanicals is further described. The study presents the identification of the carbohydrate using a gas chromatographic‐mass spectrometric analysis that allows detection of molecules as large as maltotetraose, after changing them into trimethylsilyl derivatives. A number of carbohydrates in the plant (fructose, glucose, mannose, sucrose, maltose, xylose, sorbitol, and myo‐, chiro‐, and scyllo‐inositols) were quantitated using a novel liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometric technique. Both techniques involved new method developments. The gas chromatography with mass spectrometric analysis involved derivatization and separation on a Rxi^®‐5Sil MS column with H₂ as a carrier gas. The liquid chromatographic separation was obtained using a hydrophilic interaction type column, YMC‐PAC Polyamine II. The tandem mass spectrometer used an electrospray ionization source in multiple reaction monitoring positive ion mode with the detection of the adducts of the carbohydrates with Cs⁺ ions. The validated quantitative procedure showed excellent precision and accuracy allowing the analysis in a wide range of concentrations of the analytes.     

Structure analysis of the propionic–pentafluoropropionic anhydride derivatives of norepinephrine and serotonin

Gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric analysis was used for the examination of norepinephrine and serotonin derivatives formed from their sequential reaction with propionic anhydride and pentafluoropropionic anhydride. The structures of the resulting derivatives were determined by the analysis of the mass spectra of the proteo and deutero homologs and by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Mechanisms for the synthesis and electron impact fragmentation of these derivatives are proposed.     

液液萃取结合分散固相萃取-液相色谱串联质谱检测食品包装纸中的4-氨基偶氮苯

采用高效液相色谱-串联质谱法（LC-MS/MS）快速测定食品包装纸中偶氮染料释放的4-氨基偶氮苯.试样在0.5 mol/L氢氧化钠溶液的碱性环境下,用连二亚硫酸钠还原试样中的偶氮染料,用甲基叔丁基醚反萃取还原裂解产生的4-氨基偶氮苯,经氮吹、甲醇复溶后,用液相色谱-串联质谱进行测定,内标法定量.方法优化了色谱分离、质谱、液液萃取和分散固相萃取等条件.最优化条件下方法的检出限为0.13 mg/kg,定量限为0.42 mg/kg,加标回收率在90%~95%之间（添加水平分别为1、10、30 mg/kg）,相对标准偏差小于5%.     

Mass spectral investigations on trichothecene mycotoxins. III. Synthesis, characterization and applications of pentafluoropropionyl and trifluoroacetyl esters of simple trichothecenes

The pentafluoropropionyl, (PFP) and trifluoroacetyl (TFA) esters of several naturally occurring and synthetically modified simple trichothecenes were synthesized in nanogram amounts and characterized. Optimum conditions for the gas chromatographic (GC) separation of these derivatives and their analysis by negative ion chemical ionization (NICI) mass spectrometric technique were determined. These perfluoroacyl derivatives under the NICI conditions undergo limited but characteristic fragmentations similar to the fragmentations of heptafluorobutyryl esters of trichothecenes under the same conditions. Characteristic ions for the specific detection and accurate quantification of these PFP and TFA derivatives were chosen. Preliminary results indicated that the PFP derivatives are better suited for the analysis of simple trichothecenes by GC-NICI-MS technique. Ultra trace (0.5-2.0 pg) amounts of these PFP derivatives were detected by the developed procedure.     

Inorganic trace analysis by mass spectrometry

Mass spectrometric methods for the trace analysis of inorganic materials with their ability to provide a very sensitive multielemental analysis have been established for the determination of trace and ultratrace elements in high-purity materials (metals, semiconductors and insulators), in different technical samples (e.g. alloys, pure chemicals, ceramics, thin films, ion-implanted semiconductors), in environmental samples (waters, soils, biological and medical materials) and geological samples. Whereas such techniques as spark source mass spectrometry (SSMS), laser ionization mass spectrometry (LIMS), laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), glow discharge mass spectrometry (GDMS), secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) have multielemental capability, other methods such as thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) and resonance ionization mass spectrometry (RIMS) have been used for sensitive mono- or oligoelemental ultratrace analysis (and precise determination of isotopic ratios) in solid samples. The limits of detection for chemical elements using these mass spectrometric techniques are in the low ng g⁻¹ concentration range. The quantification of the analytical results of mass spectrometric methods is sometimes difficult due to a lack of matrix-fitted multielement standard reference materials (SRMs) for many solid samples. Therefore, owing to the simple quantification procedure of the aqueous solution, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is being increasingly used for the characterization of solid samples after sample dissolution. ICP-MS is often combined with special sample introduction equipment (e.g. flow injection, hydride generation, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or electrothermal vaporization) or an off-line matrix separation and enrichment of trace impurities (especially for characterization of high-purity materials and environmental samples) is used in order to improve the detection limits of trace elements. Furthermore, the determination of chemical elements in the trace and ultratrace concentration range is often difficult and can be disturbed through mass interferences of analyte ions by molecular ions at the same nominal mass. By applying double-focusing sector field mass spectrometry at the required mass resolution—by the mass spectrometric separation of molecular ions from the analyte ions—it is often possible to overcome these interference problems. Commercial instrumental equipment, the capability (detection limits, accuracy, precision) and the analytical application fields of mass spectrometric methods for the determination of trace and ultratrace elements and for surface analysis are discussed.     

Screening for 2-quinolinone-derived selective androgen receptor agonists in doping control analysis

Selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs) represent a class of emerging drugs with high potential for misuse in sports, and therefore members of this group are banned as anabolic agents by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Preventive approaches to restrict their use include early implementation of target analytes into doping control screening assays and evaluation of the mass spectrometric behavior of these drugs to allow their unequivocal identification as well as the characterization of structurally related compounds and metabolic products. Four model SARMs with the 6-alkylamino-2-quinolinone structure, including the advanced drug candidate LGD-2226, were synthesized. Fragmentation pathways after positive electrospray ionization and collision-induced dissociation were studied using an LTQ Orbitrap mass analyzer, and diagnostic product ions and common dissociation pathways were employed to establish a screening procedure targeting intact quinolinone-based SARMs as well as putative metabolic products such as dealkylated analogues. Therefore, features of a triple quadrupole mass analyzer such as multiple reaction monitoring and precursor ion scanning were utilized. Sample preparation based on commonly employed liquid-liquid extraction and subsequent liquid chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric measurement allowed for detection limits of 0.01-0.2 ng/mL, and intra- and interday precisions between 3.2 and 8.5% and between 6.3 and 16.6%, respectively. Recoveries varied from 81 to 98%, and tests for ion suppression or enhancement effects were negative for all analytes.     

High-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometric identification of dibenzylbutyrolactone-type lignans: insights into electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric fragmentation of lign-7-eno-9,9'-lactones and application to the lignans of Linum usitatissimum L. (Common Flax)

In continuation of our studies into the mass spectrometric detection of natural lignans and their identification in complex mixtures such as crude plant extracts, the electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometric (ESI-MS/MS) fragmentation of Delta(7,8)-unsaturated dibenzylbutyrolactone-type lignans (lign-7-eno-9,9'-lactones) was studied in detail. It is demonstrated that the characteristic fragmentation allows unambiguous identification including distinction between constitutional isomers. These lignans containing an alpha,beta-unsaturated lactone structure exist as equilibrium mixtures of E- and Z-isomers indistinguishable by mass spectrometry, but it is shown that chromatographic retention time can be used to distinguish between the isomeric forms. Based on these observations, re-analysis of the dichloromethane extract obtained from flowering aerial parts of Linum usitatissimum L. by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/ESI-MS/MS led to the identification of eighteen lignans of these types (five lignano- and one lignenolactone previously reported along with five further lignano- as well as seven lignenolactones hitherto unreported for this plant). The simultaneous identification of eighteen different lignans in the complex matrix of a crude plant extract by a single analysis demonstrates the potential of this method, which will certainly lead to new insights into the lignan composition and metabolism of different Linum species and many other plants.     

A new approach for sequencing human IRS1 phosphotyrosine-containing peptides using CapLC-Q-TOF(micro)

Reversible phosphorylation of proteins functions as a biological switching network for activation and inhibition of downstream biological processes. Since phosphorylations of these sites are often transient processes, and hence sub-stoichiometric, systematic characterization of phosphorylation sites is a formidable challenge. In this work, a new approach was developed to pinpoint phosphotyrosine sites on tyrosine-containing peptides. This required (1) the development of a new and highly sensitive nano-electrospray assembly and (2) validation of the concept that the specificity and detection limit for trace levels of phosphotyrosine immonium ion in peptide mixtures from protein digests can be increased by varying the collision energy. With our method, an automatic tandem mass spectrometric analysis of peptides eluted from a C(18) capillary liquid chromatographic column is triggered by a positive confirmation of phosphotyrosine immonium ion in a time-of-flight mass spectrometric survey. The approach was tested by analyzing the phosphorylation of human IRS-1 peptides that interact with the Src-homology 2 domain and mixtures of these peptides with tryptic digests of bovine serum albumin and horse heart myoglobin.     

High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of sulphonated dyes and intermediates

This paper reports our results in the analysis of polysulphonated anionic dyes and their intermediates using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). Negative-ion electrospray ionization is the most suitable ionization technique for the molecular mass determination of polysulphonated dyes or other dyes carrying a negative charge. From the series of [M-xH]x- ions and their sodiated adducts [M-(x + y)H+yNa]x-, the molecular mass and the number of sulphonic and carboxylic groups can be determined. The mobile phase should be compatible with the mass spectrometric detection, which rules out non-volatile tetraalkylammonium salts usually used as ion-pair mobile phase additives for the HPLC of sulphonated compounds. Some mono- and disulphonated dyes and intermediates can be separated with aqueous-organic mobile phases containing 5 mM ammonium acetate, which is the most suitable additive as far as compatibility with MS detection is concerned. However, the retention of compounds with two or more sulphonic groups is too low for a successful separation both with this mobile phase additive and with ion-pair additives with short alkyl chains. The dihexylammonium acetate ion-pairing reagent offers a reasonable compromise in terms of sufficient volatility and adequate retention and separation selectivity for the HPLC-MS analysis of polysulphonated dyes.     

High-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection coupled to electrospray time-of-flight and ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry to identify phenolic compounds from a lemon verbena extract

High-performance liquid chromatography with diode array and electrospray ionization mass spectrometric detection was used to carry out the comprehensive characterization of a lemon verbena extract with demonstrated antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity. Two different MS techniques have been coupled to HPLC: on one hand, time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and on the other hand, tandem mass spectrometry on an ion-trap. The use of a small particle size C18 column (1.8 μm) provided a great resolution and made possible the separation of several isomers. The UV–visible spectrophotometry was used to delimit the class of phenolic compound and the accurate mass measurements on time-of-flight spectrometer enabled to identify the compounds present in the extract. Finally, the fragmentation pattern obtained in MS–MS experiments confirmed the proposed structures. This procedure was able to determine many well-known phenolic compounds present in lemon verbena such as verbascoside and its derivatives, diglucuronide derivatives of apigenin and luteolin, and eukovoside. Also gardoside, verbasoside, cistanoside F, theveside, campneoside I, chrysoeriol-7-diglucuronide, forsythoside A and acacetin-7-diglucuronide were found for the first time in lemon verbena.     

Prospects for petroleum mass spectrometry and chromatography

Several recently developed analytical techniques, based on high-end mass spectrometry and chromatography, for dealing with challenges in petroleum characterization are reported. Folded flight path time-of-flight mass spectrometry provides resolving power up to 100000, enabling accurate mass measurement for molecular formula determination with high confidence. Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) can be used in both gas chromatography (GC, as APGC) and liquid chromatography (LC) for analyzing non-polar hydrocarbons as well as polar compounds. The improvement in chromatography facilitates the mass spectrometric analysis through online coupling. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) resolves overlapping components, rendering accurate identification and quantitation. Supercritical fluid extraction has been developed as an alternative method to replace traditional solvent extraction methods and eliminate the use of large volumes of solvents that can be harmful to health and environment. Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) has been developed as a convergence of GC and LC chromatographic techniques. The use of SFC for heavy oils and residua has been demonstrated. Prospective developments in the use of mass spectrometric and chromatographic methods for petroleum characterization are also described.     

LC/MS and LC/MS/MS based protocol for identification of dyes in historic textiles

Identification of dyes in historic textiles was until recently only based on reversed phase liquid chromatography and diode-array detection (RPLC–DAD). Although in the last years mass spectrometry (MS) is increasingly used as a detection system for liquid chromatography, most applications in the field are directed to identification of the molecular ions or in studies dedicated to degradation products which may be used as markers in RPLC–DAD. In the present work, an analytical protocol for the identification of dyes using RPLC/ESI/MS is presented. Atmospheric pressure electrospray ionization (ESI) was applied, in the negative ion monitoring mode. Both single stage and tandem MS (MS/MS) approaches were considered. An ion trap was used as mass analyzer. Experiments are based on the characterization of standards (natural dyes and/or dyed fibers) with the mass spectrometer sequentially working in the following modes: single MS/full scan, followed by plotting chromatograms through ion extraction (IEC) according to mass/charge ratios corresponding to molecular ions; single MS/selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode; tandem MS/single reaction monitoring (SRM) mode; tandem MS/multiple reactions monitoring (MRM) or product ion scanning modes. A faster chromatographic separation could be applied as MS detection readily balanced the selectivity of the analytical process. In a case study, 11 dyes from 3 biological sources were detected in a 0.5 mg historic sample.     

Derivatization and mass spectrometric behaviour of catecholamines and their 3-O-methylated metabolites

A method has been developed for the derivatization of both catecholamines (dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline) and their 3-O-methylated metabolites (3-methoxytyramine, normetanephrine and metanephrine) in a single run. The compounds were first incubated with methanolic hydrochloric acid to methylate those compounds that contain a benzylic hydroxyl group and were subsequently converted into their pentafluoropropionyl derivatives. The derivatives thus prepared, showed good gas chromatographic and electron-impact mass spectrometric properties and can be analysed in a single gas chromatographic run. The effect of the derivatization on exchange reactions in the aromatic ring was investigated because standard compounds with deuterium label in that part of the molecule are often used in isotope dilution measurements. The exchange of deuterium for hydrogen in the aromatic ring under derivatization conditions was found to be limited.     

GC-MS studies on the regioisomeric 2,3- and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamines related to MDEA, MDMMA, and MBDB

Three regioisomeric 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamines having the same molecular weight and major mass spectral fragments of equal mass have been reported as drugs of abuse in forensic studies in recent years. These compounds are 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-N-dimethylamphetamine (MDMMA), and N-methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (MBDB). The mass spectra of the regioisomers (2,3-methylenedioxyphenethylamines) are essentially equal to the three compounds reported as drugs of abuse. This paper reports the synthesis, mass spectral characterization, and chromatographic analysis of these six regioisomeric amines. The six regioisomeric methylenedioxyphenethylamines are synthesized from commercially available starting materials. The electron impact mass spectra of these regioisomers show some variation in the relative intensity of the major ions with only a couple of minor ions that may indicate side chain specific fragments. Differentiation by mass spectrometry is only possible after the formation of the perfluoroacyl derivatives, pentafluoropropionylamides (PFPA) and heptafluorobutrylamides (HFBA). Gas chromatographic separation on non-polar stationary phases (Rtx-1 and Rtx-5) is not successful at resolving the three 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamines from the three 2,3-methylenedioxyphenethylamines as the underivatized amines. The six underivatized amines are resolved on the more polar trifluoropropylmethyl polysiloxane Rtx-200 stationary phase as well as a permethylated beta-cyclodextran Rtx-bDEX stationary phase. Gas chromatographic separation is successful at resolving the four PFPA and the four HFBA derivatives on the Rtx-200 stationary phase as well as the permethylated beta-cyclodextran stationary phase. The 2,3-methylenedioxyphenethylamine derivatives (compounds 4 and 6) eluted before the 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamine derivatives (compounds 1 and 3) as both the PFPA and HFBA derivatives.     

Characterisation of historical organic dyestuffs by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry

This review discusses the characterisation of natural organic dyestuffs of historical interest by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. The structures of the most important natural organic dyestuffs traditionally used are presented and discussed from the perspective of their analytical chemical determination. The practical aspects of the determination of this inhomogeneous range of compounds with different structures, such as anthraquinones, flavonoids, indigoids or tannins, are discussed with their implications for sample preparation, liquid chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric detection. The particular focus of this review is the discussion of the mass spectral fragmentation patterns of the different classes of natural organic dyestuffs, which in the ideal case allow the identification of the dyestuff actually used, and thereby provide a key to the better characterisation and understanding of historical objects dyed with natural organic dyestuffs. Figure LC-MS allows characterisation of natural dyestuff constituents: the MS spectrum of alizarin is superimposed over a photo of a textile coloured using this red dye     

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of monohydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids as their methyl esters trimethylsilyl, allyldimethylsilyl and tert.-butyldimethylsilyl ethers

The gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric properties of the monohydroxy acids 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE), 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE) as their methyl ester trimethylsilyl, methyl ester allyldimethylsilyl and methyl ester tert.-butyldimethylsilyl ethers were investigated. The gas chromatographic properties of the trimethylsilyl and tert.-butyldimethylsilyl derivatives were found to be excellent while the allyldimethylsilyl derivative required a well deactivated column. The mass spectra of these silyl derivatives with the exception for 12-HETE did not exhibit particularly intense ions in the upper mass region. A quantitative analysis by selected-ion monitoring of the most intense ion in the upper mass region of respective mass spectrum demonstrated that a detection limit in the low picogram range could only be obtained for 12-HETE. Since the mass spectra indicated that the double bonds exerted a strong influence on the fragmentation pattern, the trimethylsilyl, allyldimethylsilyl and tert.-butyldimethylsilyl ethers of the methyl esters of the reduced analogues of the monohydroxy acids were prepared. The saturation of the double bonds completely altered the fragmentation patterns and very intense ions carrying a high percentage of the total ion abundance were found in all of the mass spectra. The developed technique was utilized for measurements of 5-HETE in lung tissue samples from patients with lung cancer.     

Characterization and determination of six aristolochic acids and three aristololactams in medicinal plants and their preparations by high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

Aristolochic acid derivatives (AAs) and aristolactam derivatives (ALs) have been characterized by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and their fragmentation pathways are proposed. ALs exhibit a single ionization product [M+H]+, whereas AAs show multiple ionization products. By optimizing the chromatographic separation and mass spectrometric parameters, the precursor ions of the derivatives with the best responses were found, and the sensitivities in the determination of the nine derivatives were improved. Based on the investigation of ionization behaviour, a HPLC-DAD/ESI-MS (high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array detection/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry) method has been developed for simultaneous analysis of nine derivatives, i.e., AA I, AA II, AA C, AA D, 7-OH AA I, aristolic acid I, AL AII, AL IIIa and AL IVa, in nine medicinal herbs and two preparations. The method appears to be suitable for safety assurance and quality control of commercially available samples with good selectivity and suitable sensitivity.     

Methods of sample preparation for determination of pesticide residues in food matrices by chromatography–mass spectrometry-based techniques: a review

Much progress has been made in pesticide analysis over the past decade, during which time hyphenated techniques involving highly efficient separation and sensitive detection have become the techniques of choice. Among these, methods based on chromatographic separation with mass spectrometric detection have resulted in greater likelihood of identification and are acknowledged to be extremely useful and authoritative methods for determination of pesticide residues. Even with such powerful instrumental techniques, however, the risk of interference increases with the complexity of the matrix studied, so sample preparation before instrumental analysis is still mandatory in many applications, for example food analysis. This article summarizes the analytical characteristics of the different methods of sample-preparation for determination of pesticide residues in a variety of food matrices, and surveys their recent applications in combination with chromatographic mass spectrometric analysis. We discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of the different methods, address instrumental aspects, and summarize conclusions and perspectives for the future.