The role of water release from the cyclodextrin cavity in the complexation of benzoyl chlorides by dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin

The influence of temperature on the solvolysis of substituted benzoyl chlorides in the presence of dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin (DM-β-CD) was studied. Based on the influence of the DM-β-CD concentration on chemical reactivity in this process, the cyclodextrin has a catalytic effect on the solvolysis of 4-nitrobenzoyl chloride (4-NO₂) but an inhibitory effect on that of 4-methoxy-(4-MeO), 3-chloro-(3-Cl) and 3-trifluoromethyl-(3-CF₃) benzoyl chlorides. These disparate effects are related to a difference in reaction mechanism; thus, DM-β-CD catalyses associative solvolysis and inhibits dissociative solvolysis. Examining the influence of temperature on the solvolytic process allowed the stoichiometry of the host-guest complexes formed to be established. The formation constants for the complexes of meta-substituted benzoyl chlorides increased with increasing temperature. On the other hand, the equilibrium formation constants for the 1:1 host-guest complexes of para-substituted benzoyl chlorides exhibited the opposite trend. The equilibrium formation constant for 2:1 host-guest complexes for the para-substituted benzoyl chlorides increased with increasing temperature. These differences are ascribed to the release of water from the DM-β-CD cavity during the formation of the host-guest complex.     

Complexation behavior of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cyclodextrin in modulating and constructing polymer networks

A systematic study of the host-guest complexation by alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cyclodextrin (CD) in either the free state or as substituents of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) with the hydrophobic n-octadecyl groups, C18, substituted onto PAA (HMPAA) and its effect on polymer aggregation and network formation is reported. Free alpha-CD, beta-CD, and gamma-CD mask hydrophobic associations between the C18 substituent of HMPAA in aqueous solution and form host-guest complexes with a 1:1 or CD:C18 substituent stoichiometry at 0.5 wt % polymer concentration. For alpha-CD this host-guest stoichiometry changes to 2:1 or 2alpha-CD:C18 at > or =1 wt % polymer concentrations but not for beta-CD and gamma-CD. Shear-thickening occurs when gamma-CD complexes C18 HMPAA substituents. Upon addition of sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS (SDS:CD = 1:1), the hydrophobic associations between C18 diminished by alpha-CD masking were fully restored, were only partly restored in the case of beta-CD, and not restored for gamma-CD. When alpha- and beta-CD substituted PAA (alpha-CDPAA and beta-CDPAA) were mixed with HMPAA polymer, networks formed. As for free beta-CD, the beta-CD substituents of beta-CDPAA also formed 1:1 or beta-CD:C18 stoichiometry host-guest complexes with the C18 substituents of HMPAA. The alpha-CD substituents of alpha-CDPAA also formed 1:1 or alpha-CD:C18 stoichiometry host-guest complexes with some indication of the formation of 2:1 or 2alpha-CD:C18 stoichiometry host-guest complexes at polymer concentrations > or =1 wt %. The polymer networks formed by beta-CDPAA with HMPAA are less viscous than those formed by alpha-CDPAA, for which shear-thickening occurs at polymer concentrations > or =2 wt %. It is evident that the difference in CD annular size and its match with the C18 of HMPAA control the diversity of the interactions of alpha-CD, beta-CD, gamma-CD, alpha-CDPAA, and beta-CDPAA with HMPAA.     

Molecular electrostatic potentials and hydrogen bonding in alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cyclodextrins

Cyclodextrins (CDs) are cyclic oligomers of glucose having the toroid of sugars elaborating a central cavity of varying size depending on the number of glucoses. The central hydrophobic cavity of CD shows a binding affinity toward different guest molecules, which include small substituted benzenes to long chain surfactant molecules leading to a variety of inclusion complexes when the size and shape complementarity of host and guest are compatible. Further, interaction of guest molecules with the outer surface of alpha-CD has also been observed. Primarily it is the electrostatic interactions that essentially constitute a driving force for the formation of inclusion complexes. To gain insights for these interactions, the electronic structure and the molecular electrostatic potentials in alpha-, beta-, and gamma-CDs are derived using the hybrid density functional theory employing the three-parameter exchange correlation functional due to Becke, Lee, Yang, and Parr (B3LYP). The present work demonstrates how the topography of the molecular electrostatic potential (MESP) provides a measure of the cavity dimensions and understanding of the hydrogen-bonded interactions involving primary and secondary hydroxyl groups. In alpha-CD, hydrogen-bonded interactions between primary -OH groups engender a "cone-like" structure, while in beta- or gamma-CD the interactions from the primary -OH with ether oxygen in glucose ring facilitates a "barrel-like" structure. Further, the strength of hydrogen-bonded interactions of primary -OH groups follows the rank order alpha-CD > beta-CD > gamma-CD, while the secondary hydrogen-bonded interactions exhibit a reverse trend. Thus weak hydrogen-bonded interactions prevalent in gamma-CD manifest in shallow MESP minima near hydroxyl oxygens compared to those in alpha- or beta-CD. Furthermore, electrostatic potential topography reveals that the guest molecule tends to penetrate inside the cavity forming the inclusion complex in beta- or gamma-CD.     

Effects of zwitterionic vesicles on the reactivity of benzoyl chlorides

A systematic study on the solvolysis reaction of substituted benzoyl chlorides in the presence of zwitterionic vesicles of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) has been performed. Size, shape, surface charge, and polarity of the interface of the vesicular aggregates were determined using various techniques. The application of the pseudophase formalism allowed us to obtain the thermodynamic and kinetic coefficients characteristic of the reaction. The effects of vesicular aggregates on the solvolysis of benzoyl chlorides, which are known to be sensitive to the physical properties of the medium, depend on the nature of the substrate. For benzoyl chlorides with electron-donating groups, which react predominantly through a dissociative mechanism which is strongly affected by medium properties, the rate constant decreases as the vesicle concentration increases. On the other hand, for benzoyl chlorides with electron-withdrawing groups, which react mainly via an associative pathway, DPPC vesicles catalyze the solvolysis reaction.     

The solvolysis of benzoyl halides as a chemical probe determining the polarity of the cavity of dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin

The solvolysis of benzoyl halides (BzX) in the presence of dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin (DM-β-CD) was studied. Methylation or hydroxyalkylation of the hydroxyl groups in β-cyclodextrin increases their solubility and the highest possible concentration of DM-β-CD that can be dissolved in water is 0.2 M. The ability to use more readily soluble CDs may allow one to determine the stoichiometry of their complexes and the properties of water held in their cavity with increased precision. Based on the experimental results, this cyclodextrin forms host-guest complexes of variable stoichiometry where two reaction pathways are considered: in water and in the internal cavity of the cyclodextrin. We determined the rate constants for the halides in their reaction inside the internal cavity. This allowed the influence of the substituent and leaving group on the reactions in the bulk water and the internal cavity of DM-β-CD to be compared. Depending on whether the solvolysis reaction is preferentially associative or dissociative, the presence of the cyclodextrin has a catalytic or inhibitory effect, respectively.     

Effect of cyclodextrins on the stability of adriamycin, adriamycinol, adriamycinone and daunomycin

The stability of adriamycin (ADR), adriamycinol, adriamycinone (ADR-ONE) and daunomycin in the presence of alpha-, beta- and gamma-cyclodextrins (CDs) was studied using high-performance liquid chromatography. It was found that alpha-CD did not affect the degradation of tested compounds, beta-CD caused a little effect and gamma-CD resulted in pronounced stabilizing effect. The formation of complexes between ADR and ADR-ONE with CDs was monitored by fluorescence spectroscopy. The fluorescence spectrum of ADR-gamma-CD complex had an activation maximum at 460 nm, emission maximum at 555 nm and a shoulder at 585 nm. A similar finding was observed in case of alpha-CD. In case of beta-CD, the fluorescence intensity at 580 nm peak enhanced less than in case of gamma-CD. With ADR-ONE, alpha-CD did not cause any significant change compared with the spectrum of free molecule. On the other hand, it was noticed that, the fluorescence spectra of ADR-ONE with both beta- and gamma-CD were the same but showed a significant difference to the spectrum of free molecule, especially the molar fluorescence of the 585 nm emission peak.     

Cyclodextrin cavity size effect on the complexation and rotational dynamics of the laser dye 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole: from singly occupied complexes to their nanotubular self-assemblies

The general complexation scheme as well as the dynamic features of the supramolecular structures resulting from the interaction of the laser dye 2,5-diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole (PPD) with the naturally occurring alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cyclodextrins in water are studied by means of fluorescence spectroscopy, both steady-state (SS) and time-resolved (TR). PPD interacts weakly, from a thermodynamic point of view, with alpha-cyclodextrin (alpha-CD), forming 1:1 complexes with an association constant of K(11) = 85 +/- 4 M(-1). However, the local motion of the substrate (PPD) with respect to the ligand (CD) in the complexed form is hindered; namely, dynamically, they are strongly coupled and only a global tumbling motion, = 370 +/- 30 ps, of the whole adduct is observed. The next homologue beta-CD also forms 1:1 entities with PPD, but although the binding strength of reactants (K(11) = 682 +/- 60 M(-1)) is almost an order of magnitude greater than the former case with the alpha-CD, these are dynamically weakly coupled. In fact, two independent motions are detected: one is that of the whole nanostructure motion (1:1, PPD/beta-CD) with a global rotational relaxation time of = 480 +/- 30 ps, and the other is an internal librational motion of the dye inside the host cavity with an average angular displacement of theta approximately 27 degrees . Finally, the interaction of PPD with the wider and more flexible cavity of the gamma-CD "triggers" a self-associative scheme of the initially formed supramolecular building blocks, namely, singly occupied complexes, leading to the formation of nanotubular superstructures. It is found that these linear arrays are constituted from more than 17 gamma-CD units which are held together with the aid of dimers of PPD. Interestingly, our results supported that two distinct dimeric forms of PPD play the role of the "shaft" between adjacent cyclodextrin units. The topology of the dimers in the interlinking space of gamma-CD units is such that PPD molecules are held in suitable proximity, resulting, upon excitation, in the observation of dual excimer emission.     

Study on the aggregation and electrochemical properties of Rose Bengal in aqueous solution of cyclodextrins

The interactions of Rose Bengal (RB) with alpha-cyclodextrin (alpha-CD), hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HP-beta-CD), hydroxypropyl-gamma-cyclodextrin (HP-gamma-CD), heptakis(2,3,6-tri-O-methyll)-beta-cyclodextrin (TM-beta-CD) were studied in aqueous solutions of 0.1 M KClO(4) and 0.1 M LiClO(4) by vis absorption, fluorescence spectroscopy as well as electrochemical measurements at 298 K. The spectrophometric results indicate that RB is included in all beta- and gamma-CDs forming complexes with a stoichiometry 1:1 whose stability is slightly higher in KClO(4) than in LiClO(4) solutions. The complex stability constants determined for salt-containing CD solutions are lower than those for water solutions. The complexation of RB with beta- and gamma-CD and the differences between the complexes obtained in the presence of the two salts were confirmed by an electrochemical study.     

Inclusion complexes of Fe(III) tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin with cyclodextrins in aqueous solutions

In aqueous solutions, inclusion complexation of Fe(III) tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (FeTSPP) with alpha-cyclodextrin (alpha-CD), beta-CD, gamma-CD, and heptakis(2,3,6-tri-O-methyl)-beta-CD (TM-beta-CD) has been examined by means of absorption and induced circular dichroism spectroscopy. FeTSPP has been found to form inclusion complexes with beta-CD, gamma-CD, and TM-beta-CD in pH 3.2 buffers. At pH 10.1, where FeTSPP self-associates to form an oxo-bridged dimer, FeTSPP also forms inclusion complexes with alpha-CD, beta-CD, gamma-CD, and TM-beta-CD. The stoichiometries of the CD-FeTSPP inclusion complexes are 1:1, except for TM-beta-CD in pH 10.1 buffers where its 1:1 inclusion complex associates with TM-beta-CD to form a 2:1 inclusion complex at high TM-beta-CD concentrations. Equilibrium constants of FeTSPP for the formation of the 1:1 inclusion complexes have been evaluated for beta-CD, gamma-CD, and TM-beta-CD. Induced circular dichroism spectra of FeTSPP in alpha-CD and beta-CD solutions exhibit a signal pattern (a negative sign) that is different from those in acidic and basic solutions containing gamma-CD and that in basic solution containing TM-beta-CD, suggesting different inclusion modes towards FeTSPP.     

Cyclodextrin effect on solvolysis of ortho benzoyl chlorides

A kinetic study was carried out on the solvolysis of ortho benzoyl chlorides in the presence of α-, β- and γ-Cyclodextrin (CD). The solvolysis mechanism of benzoyl chlorides is sensitive to the substituents, and to the solvent in which the reaction takes place. In water, the behaviour exhibited by benzoyl chlorides which have electron-attracting groups, is consistent with an associative mechanism whilst electron-donating substituents induce a dissociative mechanism. The results obtained in the presence of CD show a decrease in the observed rate constant, k _obs, as the CD concentration increases. This behaviour can be explained if these substrates undergo solvolysis through a dissociative path in the presence of α-, β- and γ-CD.     

Evidence for complexes of different stoichiometries between organic solvents and cyclodextrins

The influence of the organic solvent on the acid and basic hydrolysis of N-methyl-N-nitroso-p-toluenesulfonamide (MNTS) in the presence of alpha- and beta-cyclodextrins has been studied. The observed rate constant was found to decrease through the formation of an unreactive complex between MNTS and the cyclodextrins. In the presence of dioxane, acetonitrile or DMSO, the inhibitory effect of beta-CD decreased on increasing the proportion of organic cosolvent as a result of a competitive reaction involving the formation of an inclusion complex between beta-CD and the cosolvent. The disparate size of the organic solvent molecules resulted in stoichiometric differences between the complexes; the beta-CD-dioxane and beta-CD-DMSO complexes were 1 : 1 whereas the beta-CD-acetonitrile complex was 1 : 2. The basic and acid hydrolysis of MNTS in the presence of alpha-CD showed a different behavior; thus, the reaction gave both 1 : 1 and 2 : 1 alpha-CD-MNTS complexes, of which only the former was reactive. This result was due to the smaller cavity size of alpha-CD and the consequent decreased penetration of MNTS into the cavity in comparison to beta-CD. The acid hydrolysis of MNTS in the presence of alpha-CD also revealed decreased penetration of MNTS into the cyclodextrin cavity, as evidenced by the bound substrate undergoing acid hydrolysis. In addition, the acid hydrolysis of MNTS in the presence of acetonitrile containing alpha-CD gave 1 : 1 alpha-CD-acetonitrile inclusion complexes, which is consistent with a both a reduced cavity size and previously reported data.     

Organic reactivity in liquid ammonia

Liquid ammonia is a useful solvent for many organic reactions including aliphatic and aromatic nucleophilic substitution and metal-ion catalysed reactions. The acidity of acids is modified in liquid ammonia giving rise to differences from conventional solvents. The ionisation constants of phenols and carbon acids are the product of those for ion-pair formation and dissociation to the free ions. There is a linear relationship between the pK(a) of phenols and carbon acids in liquid ammonia and those in water of slope 1.68 and 0.7, respectively. Aminium ions exist in their unprotonated free base form in liquid ammonia. The rates of solvolysis and aminolysis by neutral amines of substituted benzyl chlorides in liquid ammonia show little or no dependence upon ring substituents, in stark contrast with the hydrolysis rates of substituted benzyl halides in water which vary 10(7) fold. However, the rates of the reaction of phenoxide ions and amine anions with 4-substituted benzyl chlorides gives a Hammett ρ = 1.1 and 0.93, respectively. The second order rate constants for the substitution of benzyl chlorides by neutral and anionic amines show a single Br?nsted β(nuc) = 0.21 whereas those for substituted phenoxide ions generate a Br?nsted β(nuc) = 0.40. The rates of aromatic nucleophilic substitution reactions in liquid ammonia are much faster than those in protic solvents indicating that liquid ammonia behaves like a typical dipolar aprotic solvent in its solvent effects on organic reactions. Nitrofluorobenzenes (NFB) readily undergo solvolysis in liquid ammonia but oxygen nucleophiles, such as alkoxide and phenoxide ions, displace the fluorine of 4-NFB in liquid ammonia to give the corresponding substitution product with little or no competing solvolysis product. The Br?nsted β(nuc) for the reaction of 4-NFB with para-substituted phenoxides is 0.91, indicative that the decomposition of the Meisenheimer σ-intermediate is rate limiting. The aminolysis of 4-NFB occurs without general base catalysis by the amine and the second order rate constants generate a Br?nsted β(nuc) of 0.36, which is also interpreted in terms of rate limiting breakdown of the Meisenheimer σ-intermediate.     

Phosphorescence Induction by Host-Guest Complexation with Cyclodextrins – The Role of Regioisomerism and Affinity

We present an in-depth investigation of cyclodextrin complexes with guest compounds featuring complexation-induced room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) in aqueous solution. Very interestingly, only the complexed regioisomers bearing lateral substituents on meta-position show RTP, whereas the stronger host-guest systems with para-substituted dyes show no RTP features. The reported systems were investigated regarding their complexation behavior in water using isothermal titration calorimetry and mass spectrometry. In the case of γ-CD very strong 1 : 1 inclusion complexes (K_a up to 5.13×10⁵ M⁻¹) were unexpectedly observed. It was found that not only a strong binding to the cyclodextrin cavity is needed to restrict motion, inducing the emission, but also the conformation inside the cavity plays a pivotal role – as supported by an extensive NMR study and MD simulations.     

Excited-state proton transfer from pyranine to acetate in gamma-cyclodextrin and hydroxypropyl gamma-cyclodextrin

Excited-state proton transfer (ESPT) from pyranine (8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonate, HPTS) to acetate has been studied by picosecond and femtosecond emission spectroscopy in gamma-cyclodextrin (gamma-CD) and 2-hydroxypropyl-gamma-cyclodextrin (HP-gamma-CD) cavities. In both the CDs, ESPT from HPTS to acetate is found to be very much slower (90 and 200 ps) than that in bulk water (0.15 and 6 ps). From molecular modeling, it is shown that in the cyclodextrin cavity the acetate is separated from the OH group of HPTS by water bridges. As a result, proton transfer in the cavity requires rearrangement of the hydrogen-bond network involving the cyclodextrin. This is responsible for the marked slowdown of ESPT. ESPT of HPTS in substituted gamma-CD is found to be slower than that in the unsubstituted one. This is attributed to the hydroxypropyl groups, which prevent close approach of acetate to HPTS.     

Stretching a polymer brush by making in situ cyclodextrin inclusion complexes

The interaction between poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) chains grafted onto polystyrene latex particles and alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cyclodextrins (CD) was studied by small-angle neutron scattering. The particles were contrast-matched to the solvent in order that only the scattering from the polymer layers was detected. The signal from the layers was fitted to a double-exponential volume fraction profile. The effects of adding cyclodextrin on the polymer profile are shown as a function of cyclodextrin concentration. The polymer layers are seen to extend on addition of CD, which is consistent with a complexation between the grafted PEO and the CD molecules. The effect is the strongest with alpha-CD.     

Supramolecular enantiodifferentiating photocyclodimerization of 2-anthracenecarboxylate mediated by capped gamma-cyclodextrins: critical control of enantioselectivity by cap rigidity

A series of gamma-cyclodextrins (CDs) modified with capping and noncapping aromatic group(s) were synthesized to mediate the enantiodifferentiating [4 + 4] photocyclodimerization of 2-anthracenecarboxylic acid (AC). The complexation behavior of these gamma-CDs with AC was studied by circular dichroism, UV-vis, and NMR spectroscopy to reveal the formation of stable 1:2 host-guest complexes in all cases. The capped gamma-CD with a biphenyl group bridging the A and D glucose units was shown to confine the included AC molecules most strictly among the capped and noncapped gamma-CDs examined. Photocyclodimerization of AC mediated by capped gamma-CDs considerably improved the yield and enantiomeric excess (ee) of the head-to-head photodimer 3. The ee and the absolute configuration of syn-head-to-tail photodimer 2 critically depended on the rigidity of capping. Thus, the flexibly capped and rim-substituted gamma-CDs afforded 2 in moderate ee's of around 40%, whereas gamma-CD with a rigid biphenyl cap gave the antipodal 2 in -58% ee. Interestingly, the ee of 2 mediated by flexibly capped gamma-CDs was highly sensitive to the temperature variation as a consequence of large differential entropy changes in the enantiodifferentiation process. In contrast, the entropy effect does not appear to play a significant role in the photocyclodimerization of AC with rigidly capped gamma-CDs. The differential enthalpy and entropy changes obtained for the enantiodifferentiating photocyclodimerization mediated by native and most of the modified gamma-CDs gave an excellent enthalpy-entropy compensation plot with an exception of the biphenyl-capped gamma-CD, indicating the operation of significantly different enantiodifferentiation mechanism within the rigidly capped cyclodextrin cavity.     

Density functional theory study of hydrogen atom abstraction from a series of para-substituted phenols: why is the Hammett σ(p)+ constant able to represent radical reaction rates?

The rate of hydrogen atom abstraction from phenolic compounds by a radical is known to be often linear with the Hammett substitution constant σ(+), defined using the S(N)1 solvolysis rates of substituted cumyl chlorides. Nevertheless, a physicochemical reason for the above "empirical fact" has not been fully revealed. The transition states of complexes between the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (dpph·) and a series of para-substituted phenols were determined by DFT (Density Functional Theory) calculations, and then the activation energy as well as the homolytic bond dissociation energy of the O-H bond and charge distribution in the transition state were calculated. The heterolytic bond dissociation energy of the C-Cl bond and charge distribution in the corresponding para-substituted cumyl chlorides were calculated in parallel. Excellent correlations among σ(+), charge distribution, and activation and bond dissociation energies revealed quantitatively that there is a strong similarity between the two reactions, showing that the electron-deficiency of the π-electron system conjugated with a substituent plays a crucial role in determining rates of the two reactions. The results provide a new insight into and physicochemical understanding of σ(+) in the hydrogen abstraction from substituted phenols by a radical.     

Spectrofluorimetric determination of diclofenac in the presence of alpha-cyclodextrin

This study focuses on the complex formed between alpha-cyclodextrin (CD) and the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac in aqueous solution and also on its potential analytical applications. It was corroborated that the fluorescence emission band of diclofenac is significantly intensified in the presence of alpha-CD. From the changes in the fluorescence spectra, it was concluded that alpha-CD forms a 1:1 inclusional complex with diclofenac and its equilibrium constant was calculated to be 1.20(3)x10(3) M(-1). With the purpose of characterizing the inclusion complex, the acid-base behaviour of diclofenac in both the presence and absence of alpha-CD was spectrophotometrically investigated. From the results obtained, it was inferred that both the carboxyl and the secondary amino groups of the guest molecule remain outside the cyclodextrin cavity. Further details on the complex structure was obtained by (1)H NMR measurements and semiempirical calculations. In addition to the analysis of the alpha-CD-diclofenac interaction, a new approach for the quantification of diclofenac in the presence of alpha-CD is described in the range 0-5 mug ml(-1). An application of the method to the determination of the studied drug in pharmaceutical preparations is shown.     

钯催化下全氟碳负离子的产生及其反应

2-三氟甲基-3-氧杂-八氟己酸烯丙酯或2,5-二(三氟甲基)-3,6-二氧杂-十二氟壬酸烯丙酯可在钯的作用下产生相应的全氟碳负离子. 这些碳负离子能够质子化或者对取代苯甲酰氯发生亲核进攻, 后者为芳基氟烷基酮的合成提供了一条简捷途径. 另一方面,上述含氟酸的甲酯和取代苯甲酰氯在钯的作用下同样能发生反应而生成相应的芳基氟烷基酮.