Thermodynamics of redox reactions involving nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Literature data on the thermodynamics of redox nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) dependent reactions have been analyzed. It has been established that for the redox reaction of NAD

where all substances except H₂ are in the aqueous buffer with the ionization enthalpy equal to zero, the most reliable thermodynamic parameters should be considered as: ΔH(298.15 K; pH 7)=?27.4±1.7 kJ mole^?1; ΔG (298.15K; pH 7)=±17.8 kJ mole^?1. From the above thermodynamic parameters of the reaction ΔH, ΔG and ΔS for reactions of NAD with natural substrates, synthetic mediators and some inorganic compounds have been calculated.     

Synthesis of NAD analogs to develop bioorthogonal redox system

Three new nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide(NAD) analogs were synthesized,and their characteristics as cofactors for Escherichia coli malic enzyme(ME) and its double mutant ME L310R/Q401C were analyzed.Each pair of the NAD analog and the double mutant showed good orthogonality to the natural pair of NAD and ME in terms of catalyzing oxidative decarboxylation of L-malic acid.Results indicated that molecular interactions between redox enzyme and cofactor could be further explored to generate new bioorthogonal redox systems.     

Synthesis of phosphodiester-type nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide analogs

Fourteen phosphodiester-type β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) analogs were prepared starting from nicotinamide. The phosphodiester linkage was effectively assembled in 69-93% yields via condensation reaction between 2′,3′-di-O-acetyl nicotinamide mononucleotide and alcohols in the presence of 2,4,6-triisopropylbenzenesulfonyl chloride. The analog β-nicotinamide ribose-5-(2-phenylethyl) phosphate showed beneficial effects on cell growth of model microorganisms.     

Photolytic oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

A photo-reaction between thionine dye and NADH has been observed which leads to the oxidation of the co-factor. Thionine (fluorescent), which is converted into semi/leuko thionine (non-fluorescent) during light reaction, fully recovers during the dark reaction. Analytical applications of this discovery are discussed. This reaction opens the door to the measurement of NADH using the fluorescence quenching of thionine and to the construction of several optical biosensors.     

Fluorescence quenching of thionine by reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) is shown to quench the fluorescence of thionine. Quenching of thionine is extremely efficient with a half quenching concentration of only 16.1 × 10⁻⁶ M NADH. A Stern—Volmer plot is linear over the NADH concentration range from 1 to 20μM. The corresponding Stern—Volmer quenching constant is 6.2 × 10⁴ M⁻¹ and the limit of detection for NADH measurements is 1.6 × 10⁻⁶ M. Process of quenching is attributed to the formation of an exciplex between thionine and NADH. Potential analytical features of this system are discussed.     

Luminescent properties of phenylenediamine derivatives depending on the redox states

Phenylenediamines bearing the ethoxycarbonyl groups were synthesized to modulate luminescent properties. Switching of the luminescent properties was achieved by redox change between the phenylenediamine and quinonediimine derivatives.     

Novel nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide analogues as selective inhibitors of NAD-dependent enzymes

Three novel dinucleotide analogues of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) have been synthesised from d-ribonolactone. These compounds incorporate a thiophene moiety in place of nicotinamide and are hydrolytically stable. They have been evaluated as inhibitors of adenosine diphosphate ribosyl cyclase, glutamate dehydrogenase and Sir2 acyltransferase activities. Enzyme specificity and a high level of inhibition was observed for the dehydrogenase.     

On the nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

The two C-4 protons of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) produce an AB NMR spectrum at 100 MHz as well as at 220 MHz. This observation allows an upper limit of 50 sec^?1 to be placed on the mean rate of interconversion of the two folded forms of NADH invoked to account for the magnetic non-equivalence of the C-4 protons. The interpretation of non-equivalence of the C-4 protons in terms of the various equilibria among folded and unfolded forms of NADH and its possible significance in the mechanism of action of dehydrogenase enzymes is discussed. It is suggested that one folded form of NADH is strongly favored thermodynamically over the other and that the resulting magnetic non-equivalence of the C-4 protons is of doubtful significance in explaining the stereospecificity of dehydrogenase enzymes toward the nicotinamide ring.     

A comparison between the use of a redox mediator in solution and of surface modified electrodes in the electrocatalytic oxidation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Cyclic voltammetry was successfully applied to study the oxidation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) both in homogeneous and heterogeneous phase. The first case was realized with a solution containing p-methylamino-phenolsulphate (MAP) as redox mediator and the diaphorase (DI) from Clostridium kluveri as enzyme while the second one by using both a glassy carbon (GC) and a carbon nanotube paste (CNTP) electrode modified with electrodeposited films derived from 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde (3,4-DHB). Such systems were successively coupled with glucose dehydrogenase (GDH) reaction to realize the redox chain present in glucose biosensors. A critical comparison of the two systems was also reported.     

聚硫堇/石墨烯复合材料修饰电极对NADH的电催化氧化研究

采用循环伏安法将硫堇在石墨烯修饰的玻碳电极表面聚合,得到了一种新的聚硫堇/石墨烯修饰电极,此电极兼备了石墨烯和聚硫堇的特性.实验表明:该修饰电极能有效降低NADH的过电位;对NADH的检测范围为2.4×10~(-6)~4.89×10~(-3) mol·L~(-1);检出限为6.826×10~(-7) mol·L~(-1);对尿酸和抗坏血酸的干扰有很好的消除作用;此电极稳定性、重现性较好,有很高的实际应用价值.     

Ligation-triggered fluorescent silver nanoclusters system for the detection of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Herein, we demonstrate a novel silver nanocluster-based fluorescent system for the detection of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), an important biological small molecule involved in a wide range of biological processes. A single-stranded dumbbell DNA probe was designed and used for the assay, which contained a nick in the stem, a poly-cytosine nucleotide loop close to 5′ end as the template for the formation of highly fluorescent silver nanoclusters (Ag NCs) and another loop close to 3′ end. Only in the presence of NAD⁺, the probe was linked at 5′ and 3′ ends by Escherichia coli DNA ligase, which blocked the DNA polymerase-based extension reaction, ensuring the formation of fluorescent Ag NCs. This technique provided a logarithmic linear relationship in the range of 1 pM–500 nM with a detection limit of as low as 1 pM NAD⁺, and exhibited high selectivity against its analogues, and was then successfully used for the detection of NAD⁺ level in four kinds of cell homogenates. In addition, this new approach was conducted in an isothermal and homogeneous condition without the need of any thermal cycling, washing, and separation steps, making it very simple. Overall, this label-free protocol offers a promising alternative for the detection of NAD⁺, taking advantage of specificity, sensitivity, cost-efficiency, and simplicity.

Alcohol,lactate and glutamate sensors based on oxidoreductases with regeneration of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Flowthrough enzyme electrodes are reported for determinations of alcohol, lactate and glutamate. Oxidoreductases mixed with immobilized NAD⁺ cofactor are held between a suitable platinum electrode and a semipermeable membrane. The coenzyme is readily regenerated either directly by electrochemical oxidation or by using phenazine methosulphate (PMS⁺) as intermediate. Continuous flow conditions are used. The sensitivity obtained with the alcohol dehydrogenase electrode was 50, 620 or 810 nA mol^-1 of ethanol, respectively, when regeneration was done electrochemically or with 0.1 or 0.5 mM PMS⁺. The sensitivities for the lactate and glutamate sensors in the presence of 0.5 mM PMS⁺, were 14 and 50 nA mmol^-1 for D,L-lactate and L-glutamate, respectively. The calibration curves were linear for concentrations up to 0.5, 1.5 and 100 mM of glutamate, lactate and ethanol, respectively. The sensitivity of the alcohol and lactate sensors decreased by 50–55% within 60 h and that of the glutamate sensor within 6 h.     

Differential pulse polarography as a tool for the determination of trace levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+) in aqueous solution

The differential pulse polarographic behavior of NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ has been investigated in phosphate buffer. The peaks obtained at pH 8.0 are recommended for the trace determination of these compounds. Linear calibration curves are obtained over the concentration ranges from 2.6 × 10⁻⁷ to 2.6 × 10⁻⁵M for NAD⁺ and from 2 × 10⁻⁶ to 4 × 10⁻⁵ for NADP⁺.     

Enhanced acid stability of a reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) analogue

A methyl substituent at C-5 of the nicotinamide ring is found to confer increased acid stability in a reduced nicotinamide model (5-20 fold) and in a reduced dinucleotide coenzyme (2-3 fold), while retaining reactivity towards hydride transfer.     

Cathodic reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and other adenine-containing compounds in acidic media

Both nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) and acid-hydrated NADH, as well as adenine, adenosine, adenosine mono-, di-, and tri-phosphate and adenosine diphosphoribose, undergo four-electron reductions of the protonated adenine ring in acidic media. The values of αn_a (transfer coefficient times the number of electrons involved in the rate-determining step), n (total number of electron transferred), and p (number of protons involved in the rate-determining step) agree well with values previously reported for adenine. Cathodic stripping voltammetry of an adsorbed film can be applied to these compounds. Rapid scan rates are required to eliminate the slow desorption step at ?1.1 V vs. SCE for some of these compounds. Hydration of the nicotinamide ring of NADH appears to inhibit this desorption step, but does not appear to be related directly to the electroactivity of the hydration product.     

Stopped-flow kinetic studies of the coupled dichlorophenol indophenol—nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reaction

The kinetics of the reaction of dichlorophenol indophenol with NADH in the presence of phenazine methosulfate as electron carrier were studied by stopped-flow spectrophotometry, and a rate equation and mechanism are proposed. Experimental conditions are defined under which 2.5–500 μM NADH in aqueous solutions can be determined with an average error of 3%.     

Ultrasensitive and selective detection of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide by target-triggered ligation-rolling circle amplification

An ultrasensitive fluorescence assay for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) was developed by target-triggered ligation-rolling circle amplification (L-RCA). This novel approach can detect as low as 1 pM NAD(+), much lower than those of previously reported biosensors, and exhibits high discrimination ability even against 200 times excess of NAD(+) analogs.