Topotactic oxidative and reductive control of the structures and properties of layered manganese oxychalcogenides

Topotactic modification, by both oxidation and reduction, of the composition, structures, and magnetic properties of the layered oxychalcogenides Sr4Mn3O7.5Cu2Ch2 (Ch=S, Se) is described. These Mn3+ compounds are composed of alternating perovskite-type strontium manganese oxide slabs separated by anti-fluorite-type copper chalcogenide layers and are intrinsically oxide deficient in the central layer of the perovskite slabs. The systems are unusual examples of perovskite-related compounds that may topotactically be both oxidized by fluorination and reduced by deintercalation of oxygen from the oxide-deficient part of the structure. The compounds exhibit antiferromagnetic ordering of the manganese magnetic moments in the outer layers of the perovskite slabs, while the other moments, in the central layers, exhibit spin-glass-like behavior. Fluorination has the effect of increasing the antiferromagnetic ordering temperature and the size of the ordered moment, whereas reduction destroys magnetic long-range order by introducing chemical disorder which leads to both further disorder and frustration of the magnetic interactions in the manganese oxide slab.     

Improving the oxidation resistance of AlCrN coatings by tailoring chromium out-diffusion

In this work, we have studied the improvement on the oxidation resistance of AlCrN-based coatings by adding a subsurface titanium nitride barrier layer. Since oxidation is interrelated with the inward diffusion of oxygen into the surface of Al_xCr_1−xN (x = 0.70) coatings and the outward diffusion of Cr to the surface, the oxidation behaviour of the aluminium-rich AlCrN coatings can be tuned by designing the coating in an appropriate layered structure. The buried depth of the embedded layer and the oxidation time were varied, and the changes in the AlCrN/TiN depth composition profiles and surface oxidation stoichiometry were analysed by means of Glow Discharge Optical Emission Spectroscopy (GDOES) and Cross Sectional SEM (X-SEM) maps. It was observed that when a TiN diffusion barrier of 300 nm was deposited near the top surface (500 nm from the surface) the inhibition of the inward diffusion of oxygen and formation of beneficial alumina surface layers was promoted and consequently an increase of the oxidation resistance is achieved. This is explained in terms of a limited surplus of chromium from the coating to the surface. This was corroborated after performing experiments using CrN as embedded barrier layer which resulted in a continuous surplus of chromium to the surface and the formation of Cr-rich oxides. GDOES, in combination with X-SEM elemental maps, was proved to be a fast and accurate technique to monitor composition in-depth changes during oxidation, providing unique information regarding the oxide structure formation.     

Investigations on Multilayer Films: Electron Microscopy and Infrared Spectroscopy – Possibilities and Limitations

Summary: The study of multilayer films has become an important issue, since every year improved materials are produced. They have to be optimally designed in order to enable the maintenance of aroma, taste and nutritional value of the goods. This is primarily achieved by the use of special laminated films, additives and oxygen barriers. In addition, ecological and economical factors force the industry forwards to create more environmental-friendly and cheaper films. In this study, two multilayer packaging films differing in the layer and barrier composition are examined with light microscopy (LM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy: LM gives the number and the thickness of the layers, but there is no information about the chemical composition and the coatings. FTIR and Raman Spectroscopy enable the chemical characterization of the identified layers, but the lateral resolution is restricted in the µm range. TEM visualizes the important characteristics (coatings, filler particles) and enables the detection of inorganic fillers (EELS, EDX), but the organic components cannot be analyzed. Therefore, the use of complementary techniques is crucial in order to achieve a complete analysis of multilayer foils. Special attention was paid on the preparation procedure, since ultrathin sections are an important prerequisite for TEM observation and there is little known about the “perfect” preparation of multilayer films.     

Searching ultimate nanometrology for AlOx thickness in magnetic tunnel junction by analytical electron microscopy and X-ray reflectometry.

Practical analyses of the structures of ultrathin multilayers in tunneling magneto resistance (TMR) and Magnetic Random Access Memory (MRAM) devices have been a challenging task because layers are very thin, just 1-2 nm thick. Particularly, the thinness (approximately 1 nm) and chemical properties of the AlOx barrier layer are critical to its magnetic tunneling property. We focused on evaluating the current TEM analytical methods by measuring the thickness and composition of an AlOx layer using several TEM instruments, that is, a round robin test, and cross-checked the thickness results with an X-ray reflectometry (XRR) method. The thickness measured by using HRTEM, HAADF-STEM, and zero-loss images was 1.1 nm, which agreed with the results from the XRR method. On the other hand, TEM-EELS measurements showed 1.8 nm for an oxygen 2D-EELS image and 3.0 nm for an oxygen spatially resolved EELS image, whereas the STEM-EDS line profile showed 2.5 nm in thickness. However, after improving the TEM-EELS measurements by acquiring time-resolved images, the measured thickness of the AlOx layer was improved from 1.8 nm to 1.4 nm for the oxygen 2D-EELS image and from 3.0 nm to 2.0 nm for the spatially resolved EELS image, respectively. Also the observed thickness from the EDS line profile was improved to 1.4 nm after more careful optimization of the experimental parameters. We found that EELS and EDS of one-dimensional line scans or two-dimensional elemental mapping gave a larger AlOx thickness even though much care was taken. The reasons for larger measured values can be found from several factors such as sample drift, beam damage, probe size, beam delocalization, and multiple scattering for the EDS images, and chromatic aberration, diffraction limit due to the aperture, delocalization, alignment between layered direction in samples, and energy dispersion direction in the EELS instrument for EELS images. In the case of STEM-EDS mapping with focused nanoprobes, it is always necessary to reduce beam damage and sample drift while trying to maintain the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio as high as possible. Also we confirmed that the time-resolved TEM-EELS acquisition technique improves S/N ratios of elemental maps without blurring the images.     

Catalytic Etching of Platinoid Gauzes during the Oxidation of Ammonia by Air. Reconstruction of Surface of Platinoid Gauzes at 1133 K in Air,in Ammonia,and in an NH<Subscript>3</Subscript> + O<Subscript>2</Subscript> Reaction Medium

The structure, morphology, and chemical composition of the surface and near-surface layers of platinoid wires of polycrystalline gauzes, containing Pt (81 wt %), Pd (15 wt %), Rh (3.5 wt %), and Ru (0.5 wt %) after treatment at 1133 K in various media—in air, in ammonia, and after NH3 oxidation in air—are studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). A thin film is found on the surface of the initial gauze containing an oxide layer of Rh₂O₃ with a thickness of ~2 nm, on the surface of which an inhomogeneous graphite-like layer 10–50 nm thick is located. It is shown that the heat treatment of gauzes in air leads to the partial removal of the surface graphite-like film that forms the reticulated structure on the wire surface. The treatment of gauzes in an ammonia atmosphere leads to the complete removal of the graphite-like and oxide layers and to the growth of metal grains of ~10 μm. After the catalytic reaction of NH3 oxidation, a deep structural rearrangement of the surface layer of the wire takes place, as a result of which crystalline metal agglomerates of ~10 μm are formed. It is supposed that the reaction of NH3 molecules with oxygen atoms penetrated on the defects leads to the local increase of temperature, due to which the metal atoms emerge on the surface and form large crystalline agglomerates and pores in the region of the grain boundaries.     

Investigation of composition and chemical state of elements in iron boride by the method of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

The composition and chemical state of iron and boron in the surface layer of iron boride under different kinds of pretreatment of samples have been investigated by the method of X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy. It has been found that in the initial sample there is oxygen chemically combined with iron and boron atoms. Upon heating (450°C) in hydrogen, in argon, and in vacuo there occurs removal of oxygen only from iron atoms (no pure iron was found to be formed). Boron oxidizes and there probably appears a new surface combination of boron with oxygen in which the bonding energy of 1s electrons is higher than that in B₂O₃. Treatment of the iron boride surface with argon ions and with protons ensures uniform removal of oxygen from iron and boron atoms. It has been found that thermal treatment of iron boride leads to depletion of iron atoms from the sample surface layer, and pickling with argon ions and with protons leads to strong enrichment. Iron boride samples subjected to Ar⁺ and H⁺ bombardment tend to undergo significant oxidation when subsequently exposed to air at room temperature.     

Anodic silver (II) oxides investigated by combined electrochemistry,ex situ XPS and in situ X‐ray absorption spectroscopy

Silver (II) oxide layers (AgO) were prepared by anodic oxidation of pre‐oxidized, Ag₂O‐covered silver electrodes in 1 M NaOH (pH 13.8). The oxidized electrodes were investigated using a combination of electrochemical techniques, ex situ X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and in situ surface‐sensitive grazing incidence X‐ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS) under full potential control. The application of these different techniques leads to a detailed, consistent picture of the anodic silver (II) oxide layer formation. The experiments have shown that the chemical composition of the AgO layer varies significantly with oxidation potential, revealing a decreasing oxygen deficiency with increasing anodization potential and oxidation time. XPS as well as EXAFS experiments support the interpretation of the oxide as a mixed valence Ag ⁺ Ag^{3 +} O₂ with different contributions of Ag ⁺ and Ag^{3 +} species, depending on potential and anodization time. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Growth, structure, and stability of ceria films on Si(111) and the application of CaF2 buffer layers

The growth of ceria (CeO2) films by oxidation of evaporated Ce metal on Si(111) and on CaF2(111) epilayers on Si(111) is compared. By use of XPS, UPS, and LEED, it has been demonstrated that the application of a CaF2 buffer layer between the ceria and Si substrate prevents the formation of an amorphous oxidized Si layer at the interface and permits the growth of a well-defined epitaxial ceria layer of (111) surface orientation. The thermal stability of the CeO2/CaF2/Si(111) interface structure is limited by the solid-state reaction between CaF2 and ceria. This leads to gradual migration of fluorine into the oxide at elevated temperatures to give a solid-state solution of fluorine in the partially reduced oxide. An analysis of the composition observed after extensive annealing in a vacuum suggests that, with initial layers of CaF2 and CeO2 of similar thickness, the ultimate product may be CeOF. The onset of this solid-state reaction can, however, be significantly delayed by annealing under an oxygen atmosphere.     

From colloidal Co/CoO core/shell nanoparticles to arrays of metallic nanomagnets: surface modification and magnetic properties.

The magnetic properties of nanoparticles can be subject to strong variations as the chemical composition of the particle surface is modified. To study this interrelation of surface chemistry and magnetism, self-assembled layers of colloidal 9.5 nm Co/CoO core/shell nanoparticles were exposed to mild reactive hydrogen and oxygen plasmas. The consecutive oxygen/hydrogen plasma treatment transforms the particle layer into an array of metallic nanomagnets with complete reduction of the oxide and removal of the organic surfactants. The original arrangement of the particle array and the number of Co atoms per particle remains unchanged within the experimental error, and thus this is a possible route for the fabrication of ultrahigh-density magnetic bit structures from colloidal dispersions. The magnetic properties can be tuned by controlling the thickness of the surface oxide layer, which magnetically hardens the particles, as evidenced by element-specific magnetic hysteresis loops.     

SIMS/XPS characterization of surface layers formed in 3 mass% Si‐steel by annealing in oxygen at low partial pressure

Selective oxidation in silicon steel shows several interesting phenomena, such as the formation of an internal oxidation zone that depends on the oxidation conditions and the steel composition. In this work, SIMS and XPS were used for characterizing the formation processes of surface layers formed during selective oxidation of a typical silicon steel. The starting material is a secondary‐recrystallized 3 mass% Si‐steel sheet with a surface orientation of (011). Sample sheets were annealed at a temperature of 948–1023 K under an atmosphere with a low partial pressure of oxygen. The SIMS depth profiles show that the internal oxidation zone thickens and an iron‐rich layer that formed on the internal oxidation zone expands as the annealing temperature increases. Manganese and chromium levels increase outside the internal oxidation zone, whereas tin exists in the internal oxidation zone. The XPS results of the sample surface show that silicon and manganese levels increase on the sample surface to form oxides, and the chemical composition and state of these elements depend on the annealing temperature. In addition, tin increases on the surface of a relatively thick iron‐rich layer that formed on the internal oxidation layer. These experimental results are discussed on the basis of the thermodynamic characteristics of the elements. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nucleation and growth of gas barrier aluminium oxide on surfaces of poly(ethylene terephthalate) and polypropylene: effects of the polymer surface properties

The nucleation and initial stages of growth of aluminium oxide deposited on two different polymer surfaces [poly(ethylene terephthalate), (PET) and amorphous polypropylene, (PP)] have been studied by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The permeation of water vapor and oxygen through the films has been measured. The initial stages of the growth of the oxide consisted of separated islands on the polymer surface. Further growth of oxide depends strongly on the surface morphology and chemical nature of the polymer surface. Growth on PET follows a layer‐by‐layer mechanism that maintains the native surface roughness of the polymer substrate. Growth on PP, however, follows an island mode, which leads to an increase in surface roughness. This may be due to a lack of chemical bonding between the polymer and the arriving metal–oxygen particles. The oxide layer on PET grows more densely than on PP, providing superior barrier to gas permeation. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 38: 3151–3162, 2000     

γ‐Irradiation of ultrahigh‐molecular‐weight polyethylene: Electron paramagnetic resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging studies of the mechanism of subsurface oxidation

The shelf aging of irradiated ultrahigh‐molecular‐weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) causes subsurface oxidation, which leads to failure in UHMWPE orthopedic components, yet the mechanisms causing subsurface oxidation remain unclear. The shelf aging of γ‐irradiated UHMWPE bars has been studied with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging and with microtoming and Fourier transform infrared microscopy. The bars initially contained only allyl radicals, and upon air exposure, a surface layer of peroxyl radicals formed through the reaction of allyl radicals with oxygen. Importantly, a band of low radical intensity just beneath the peroxyl layer became apparent. NMR imaging showed a zone of altered proton relaxation in this zone. With increasing time, surface peroxyl radicals persisted in comparison with the interior allyl radicals, although oxygen did not appear to penetrate any more deeply into the bar. The area of maximal oxidation and mechanical disruption, measured after 3 years, was at the interface between the zone of exterior peroxyl radicals and the zone of low radical intensity. We present a mechanism involving the intermediacy of sterically strained reactive dialkyl peroxides at this interface to explain subsurface oxidation. We also demonstrate that EPR and NMR imaging provides information that could potentially be used to identify subsurface oxidized UHMWPE components before failure. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 42: 5929–5941, 2004     

Microspectroscopic imaging of heterophase layers of metal-oxide sensors using a video camera

The methodological foundations of digital specular reflectance microspectroscopic imaging are reported. The digital optical images of a microscopic area of the metal surface with an inhomogeneous nanostructural layer can be processed using the algorithms of spectroscopic imaging ellipsometry modified to fit reflectometry. This makes it possible to monitor the thickness, topography, and chemical composition depth profiles of thin surface metal-oxide nanolayered structures, active layers of microsensors with an active substrate. The method has been used for nondestructive analysis of the thickness and chemical composition over the volume of the oxide layer on the surface of heat-treated steel X18H10T, a system with pronounced photo-electrochemical response.     

Angle-resolved soft X-ray magnetic circular dichroism in a monatomic Fe layer facing an MgO(0 0 1) tunnel barrier

The electronic and magnetic states of a monatomic Fe(0 0 1) layer directly facing an MgO(0 0 1) tunnel barrier were studied by angle-resolved X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) at the Fe L_2,3 edges in the longitudinal (L) and transverse (T) arrangements. A strong XMCD reveals no oxidation of the 1-ML Fe, showing its crucial role in giant tunnel magnetoresistance effects in Fe/MgO/Fe magnetic tunnel junctions. Sum-rule analyses of the angle-resolved XMCD give values of a spin moment, in-plane and out-of-plane orbital and magnetic dipole moments. Argument is given on their physical implication.     

Investigations on the Thermal Cycling Stability of SiFeCr Coated NbtZr

 Refractory metal alloys play an important role as highly thermostable materials. Due to their lack of oxidation stability under elevated temperatures it is necessary to protect them with coatings. The thermal cycling stability of Si20Cr20Fe-coatings on Nb10W2.5Zr was investigated by means of imaging secondary ion mass spectrometry showing the inward-diffusion of oxygen and subsequent preferential precipitation of zirconium oxides at the grain boundaries in the bulk. An unintentional interface layer of high boron content that most likely plays a major role in oxidation protection was found. EDX measurements have been performed to investigate on the phases formed in this complex system.     

Corrosion resistance and bioactivity of titanium after surface treatment by three different methods: ion implantation,alkaline treatment and anodic oxidation

The paper compares the effects of various surface modifications, ion implantation, alkaline treatment and anodic oxidation, upon the corrosion resistance and bioactivity of titanium. The chemical composition of the surface layers thus produced was determined by XPS, SIMS and EDS coupled with SEM. The structure of the layers was examined by TEM, and their phase composition by XRD. The corrosion resistance was determined by electrochemical methods after the samples were exposed to the test conditions for 13 h. The bioactivity of titanium was evaluated in a simulated body fluid at a temperature of 37°C after various exposure time.     

Gas barrier of polystyrene montmorillonite clay nanocomposites: Effect of mineral layer aggregation

Three polystyrene (PS)/clay hybrid systems have been prepared via in situ polymerization of styrene in the presence of unmodified sodium montmorillonite (Na‐MMT) clay, MMT modified with zwitterionic cationic surfactant octadecyldimethyl betaine (C18DMB) and MMT modified with polymerizable cationic surfactant vinylbenzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride (VDAC). X‐ray diffraction and TEM were used to probe mineral layer organization and to expose the morphology of these systems. The PS/Na‐MMT composite was found to exhibit a conventional composite structure consisting of unintercalated micro and nanoclay particles homogeneously dispersed in the PS matrix. The PS/C18DMB‐MMT system exhibited an intercalated layered silicate nanocomposite structure consisting of intercalated tactoids dispersed in the PS matrix. Finally, the PS/VDAC‐MMT system exhibited features of both intercalated and exfoliated nanocomposites. Systematic statistical analysis of aggregate orientation, characteristic width, length, aspect ratio, and number of layers using multiple TEM micrographs enabled the development of representative morphological models for each of the nanocomposite structures. Oxygen barrier properties of all three PS/clay hybrid systems were measured as a function of mineral composition and analyzed in terms of traditional Nielsen and Cussler approaches. A modification of the Nielsen model has been proposed, which considers the effect of layer aggregation (layer stacking) on gas barrier. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part B: Polym Phys 45: 1733–1753, 2007     

Electric field induced permeability modulation in pure and mixed Langmuir-Blodgett multilayers of hemicyanine dyes and octadecanoic acid on nanoporous solid supports

Composite structures have been prepared, in which nanoporous (nuclear track-etched) membranes are coated with supported Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) barrier layers. Permeability in these structures is a strong function of membrane composition and applied dc and ac electric fields. Absolute permeabilities fall in the range 3×10⁻¹¹ cm² s⁻¹ ≤P≤3×10⁻⁹ cm² s⁻¹, depending on composition of the barrier layer, identity (charge state) of the probe, and presence of a supporting electrolyte. Zero-field permeabilities showed a definite dependence on composition, with membranes possessing barrier layers on both sides performing better than single-sided membranes, barrier layers with LB multilayers performing better than those with just the support layer, and LB layers composed of mixed stilbazolium amphiphiles and octadecanoic acid performing better than those composed purely of stilbazolium amphiphile. All types of barrier layers studied exhibit permeability changes in the presence of applied electric fields. The magnitude of the effect is a strong function of composition of the barrier layer and the presence of supporting electrolyte. The results support electroporation over iontophoresis as the dominant mechanism for field-mediated increases in permeability. Details of the field-induced permeability changes in phosphate buffer and deionized water suggest that at least two effects are important in determining the transport behavior in these structures: a field-induced structural change in the barrier layer which mediates the electroporation and a field-mediated alteration in transport through nanopores of the nuclear track-etched membrane.     

XPS chemical state analysis of sputter depth profiling measurements for annealed TiAl-SiO2 and TiAl-W layer stacks

For the application of surface acoustic wave sensors at high temperatures, both a high-temperature stable piezoelectric substrate and a suitable metallization for the electrodes are needed. Our current attempt is to use TiAl thin films as metallization because this material is also known to be high temperature stable. In this study, Ti/Al multilayers and Ti-Al alloy layers were prepared in combination with an SiO₂ cover layer or a W barrier layer at the interface to the substrate (thermally oxidized Si or Ca₃TaGa₃Si₂O₁₄) as an oxidation protection. To form the high-temperature stable γ-TiAl phase and to test the thermal stability of the layer systems, thermal treatments were done in vacuum at several temperatures. We used X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) sputter depth-profiling to investigate the film composition and oxidation behavior. In this paper, we demonstrate how the semiautomatic peak fitting can help to extract beside the elemental information also the chemical information from the measured depth profiles.     

Untersuchung der Anfangsstadien der Oxidation einer NiCr23-Legierung mit AES/XPS

Summary The initial stage of oxidation of NiCr23 at room-temperature and oxygen pressures between 10^–6 and 10^–5 Pa has been studied by AES and XPS. The composition of the surface during oxygen exposure was followed by continuously recording the Auger peaks of Ni (61 eV), Cr (529 eV) and O (510 eV). Photoelectron spectra from Ni 2p3/2, Cr 2p3/2 and O 1s were measured after different oxygen exposures to characterize the chemical state. The thicknesses of the oxide layers were determined by angleresolved AES. The elemental in-depth distribution was obtained by sputter depth profiling. The results are explained by an initially preferential oxidation of Cr together with an oxygen-induced segregation of Cr, followed by enrichment and oxidation of Ni at the surface. The thickness of the oxide after an exposure with 200 Langmuir oxygen was 1.3 nm, while for pure Ni it was only 0.63 nm