Radiation degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls

Gradual dechlorination of the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in alkaline solutions in 2-propanol under the effect of high energy electrons (4.5 MeV) produced by electron accelerator has been studied using a flow-through apparatus of the volume of about 50 L. The dependence of both relative radiation chemical yield and the dechlorination degree on the initial concentration of OH⁻ ions or PCBs, absorbed dose as well as on dose rate has been investigated.     

An algorithm for depth–dose curves of electrons fitted to Monte Carlo data

An accurate algorithm has been developed for the depth profiles of energy deposition by plane-parallel electron beams normally incident on semi-infinite absorbers. The energies of electrons considered are from 0.1 to 20 MeV, and the absorbers considered are elemental materials of atomic numbers between 4 and 92. Adjustable coefficients in the algorithm have been determined so as to minimize its deviations from the Monte Carlo data published by Tabata et al. (1994). The algorithm is also applicable to light compounds and mixtures.     

Effects of physics change in Monte Carlo code on electron pencil beam dose distributions

Pencil beam algorithms used in computerized electron beam dose planning are usually described using the small angle multiple scattering theory. Alternatively, the pencil beams can be generated by Monte Carlo simulation of electron transport. In a previous work, the 4th version of the Electron Gamma Shower (EGS) Monte Carlo code was used to obtain dose distributions from monoenergetic electron pencil beam, with incident energy between 1 MeV and 50 MeV, interacting at the surface of a large cylindrical homogeneous water phantom. In 2000, a new version of this Monte Carlo code has been made available by the National Research Council of Canada (NRC), which includes various improvements in its electron-transport algorithms. In the present work, we were interested to see if the new physics in this version produces pencil beam dose distributions very different from those calculated with oldest one. The purpose of this study is to quantify as well as to understand these differences. We have compared a series of pencil beam dose distributions scored in cylindrical geometry, for electron energies between 1 MeV and 50 MeV calculated with two versions of the Electron Gamma Shower Monte Carlo Code. Data calculated and compared include isodose distributions, radial dose distributions and fractions of energy deposition. Our results for radial dose distributions show agreement within 10% between doses calculated by the two codes for voxels closer to the pencil beam central axis, while the differences are up to 30% for longer distances. For fractions of energy deposition, the results of the EGS4 are in good agreement (within 2%) with those calculated by EGSnrc at shallow depths for all energies, whereas a slightly worse agreement (15%) is observed at deeper distances. These differences may be mainly attributed to the different multiple scattering for electron transport adopted in these two codes and the inclusion of spin effect, which produces an increase of the effective range of electrons.     

The electron dose monitoring and control system in EB radiation processing for wires and cables

This paper introduces a close-loop microcomputer control system used for EB radiation processing of wires and cables, which is based on the measurements and calculations of the absorbed dose distribution of 0.6–2.0 MeV electrons in circular compound materials. The calculation of electron energy deposition in 4-layer media is carried out by the bipartition model of electron transport.

The design ideas, system configuration and implementation of this control system governed by a 586 personal computer under windows 98 OS are described in this paper. The field operation results such as control precision and step response curves of this system are also given. The control system has been used for EB radiation processing of wires.     

Differential track structure of electrons in liquid water

The differential spectrum of energy loss events produced in liquid water by electrons has been calculated using a differential cross-section incorporating exchange and binding. The average energy loss in a single event is found to vary from about 28 to about 68 eV for 100 eV for 100 eV to 1 MeV electrons, respectively. All energy loss events above a certain level (set either to 1 or to 5 keV) are assumed to produce branch tracks, which are further degraded using a Monte Carlo technique. The total track averaged energy loss per event for a 1 MeV electron is found to be about 57 eV.     

Development of polystyrene calorimeter for application at electron energies down to 1.5 MeV

Polystyrene (PS) calorimeters developed at Riso National Laboratory for use below 4 MeV have been modified due to irradiation technology requirements concerning both design principles and dimensions. The temperature–time relationship after irradiation was measured, and two ways of dose measurement were tested: (1) real time temperature measurement during the irradiation and (2) pre- and post-irradiation temperature measurement. The advantages and drawbacks of these methods are discussed.Depth dose measurements have been carried out in the PS calorimeter to define the relationship between the average and the surface dose and to prove the applicability of the new low energy calorimeter for calibration purposes at 1.5 and 2 MeV electron energy. Alanine dosimeters of 2 mm thickness were used to calibrate the calorimeters and their use for nominal dose measurements was demonstrated in a series of intercomparisons. The use as routine dosimeters at electron accelerators operating in the energy range of 1.5–4 MeV was also demonstrated.     

Modification of Particle Filled Polymers with High Energy Electrons Under In-Stationary Conditions of Melt Mixing

Summary: Polymer modification with high energy electrons is well-established in polymer industry and used for degradation, cross-linking, grafting, curing, and polymerization. These applications use local and temporal precise input of energy in order to generate excited atoms or molecules and ions for subsequent molecule changes via radical induced chemical reactions. In the present study, high energy electrons have been used to modify polyolefine (polyethylene and polypropylene) systems in presence of a grafting agent under stationary and in-stationary conditions. Polymer modification with high energy electrons under stationary conditions characterizes a process where required absorbed dose is applied to polymers in solid state and at room temperature. Polymer modification with high energy electrons under in-stationary conditions is a novel process where required absorbed dose is applied in molten state during melt mixing process. In this novel process, the penetration depth of electrons is limited to a part of mixing volume. The total mixing volume is modified due to the change of polymer mass within the penetration depth of electrons during mixing process. A 1.5 MeV electron accelerator has been directly coupled to a banbury mixing chamber in order to study this novel process. In comparison to the stationary process, the main differences are working at higher temperature, absence of any crystallinity, intensive macromolecular mobility as well as intensive mixing during dose application. The influence of both processes on mechanical properties and flame resistance of polymer composites is discussed.     

Preparation of polypropylene (PP)/ethylene octene copolymer (EOC) thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs) by high energy electron reactive processing

Thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs) based on 50/50 composition of PP/EOC blend were prepared by electron induced reactive processing. To facilitate dynamic crosslinking in the PP/EOC blend, a 1.5 MeV electron accelerator was directly coupled to an internal mixer to induce chemical reactions via high energy electrons under dynamic conditions of melt mixing process. This kind of setup has been conceptualized for the first time in our laboratory and termed as electron induced reactive processing (EIReP) technique. Mechanical, morphological, and rheological properties of PP/EOC TPVs were studied with special reference to the exposure time (16–64 s) keeping absorbed dose (100 kGy) and electron energy (1.5 MeV) invariable. Chain scission dominates over chain crosslinking in both EOC as well as PP phases with the increase in exposure time. The primary factor is found to be the predominance of oxidative degradation during electron induced reactive processing in air atmosphere. The above observation was supported by Fourier Transform Infrared analyses and gel content values. Furthermore, it was found that mechanical properties depend not only on the extent of degradation in the blend system but also on the state and the mode of dispersion of the blend components.     

Reflection of electrons and photons from solids bombarded by 0.1 - to 100-MeV electrons

Electron and photon reflection ratios (in number and energy) for absorbers bombarded by electrons have been computed with the ITS Monte Carlo system version 3. Electrons of energies from 0.1 to 100 MeV have been assumed normally incident on an effectively semi-infinite absorber. The absorbers considered are elemental solids of atomic numbers from 4 to 92. The data on the electron reflection ratios agree rather well with the experimental data collected from literature except some discrepancies when the number-reflection ratio is small. For photons, the number-reflection ratio increases with increasing energy, but the energy-reflection ratio shows a maximum around 10 MeV. Empirical equations for the electron reflection ratios and the photon energy-reflection ratio are given (for electrons, graphs only).     

Reactive EB Processing of Polymer Compounds

Polymer modification with high energy electrons is well-established in polymer industry and used for degradation, cross-linking, grafting, curing, and polymerization. These applications use local and temporal precise input of energy in order to generate excited atoms or molecules as well as ions for subsequent molecule changes via radical induced chemical reactions. Reactive electron beam (EB) processing combines melt mixing process and chemical reaction simultaneously. For this purpose, a 1.5 MeV electron accelerator was directly coupled to an internal mixer in order to induce chemical reactions by energy input via high energy electrons under dynamic conditions of melt mixing of different polymer compounds. In the present study, reactive EB processing was used for the development of a flame retardant polyethylene composite as well as Thermoplastic Vulcanizate. The influence of absorbed dose as well as electron energy and electron treatment time was studied. Increased values of both tensile strength and elongation at break of polymer compounds indicated in-situ compatibilization upon reactive EB processing.     

Leakage radiations in a medical electron accelerator facility--X-rays and capture gamma-rays

Absorbed dose rates of photons are measured in the maze of a medical electron accelerator facility. Radiations in the maze include high energy recoiled electrons other than low energy reflected X-rays. An ionization chamber for low energy X-rays is used for measurement, and is put in a build-up cap thick enough to obstruct the recoiled electrons of which contribution to the chamber output comes sometimes equal to that of X-rays. Dose rates of capture gamma-rays in the maze are estimated applying the calculation of neutron dose equivalent rates reported in the preceding paper. It is proved that capture gamma-rays are dominant in the dose rates measured in the maze at 14 MV X-ray generation. The estimated absorbed dose rates of total photons including capture gamma-rays and reflected X-rays agree with the measured ones in the range from +10% to -27%.     

X-ray treatment at 5 MeV and above

There is agreement in the scientific community that X-ray treatment of food at 7.5 MeV can be safe. Possible process improvements for treating at higher than 5 MeV X-rays have been re-visited. Monte Carlo methods have been applied to simulate the X-ray conversion process and to calculate dose distributions in homogeneous phantoms. Experimental data obtained using X-rays produced with a Rhodotron TT200 at 5 and 10 MeV verifies a representative set of data which is calculated with the presented method.

With this qualified Monte Carlo tool, calculations at 7.5 MeV incident electron energy were performed. The analysis gives special attention to higher photon yield, improved product penetration, as well as surface and edge effects.     

The features of electron dose distributions in circular objects: Comparison of Monte Carlo calculation predictions with dosimetry

The features of electron dose field formation in the multi-layer circular objects are related with its surface irregularity such as convexity, concavity and roundness of inner and outer layers. The simulation of dose distributions in multi-layer tubes irradiated with a scanned electron beam (EB) was carried out by Monte Carlo (MC) method with utilization of the software ModeCEB. The effects of mutual influence on dose field formation in contacting multi-layers tubes irradiated with EB were MC simulated and measured with a film dosimetry. An experimental validation of the obtained simulation predictions for dose distributions in multi-layer tubes irradiated with 10 MeV electrons was performed on radiation facility with linear electron accelerator LAE 13/9, INCT, Warsaw. Comparison of MC simulation results with a film dosimetry is discussed in the report.     

Fluence measurements applied to 5–20 MeV/amu ion beam dosimetry by simultaneous use of a total-absorption calorimeter and a Faraday cup

A Faraday cup was fabricated for measuring the beam current of a few tens MeV/amu ion beams of the TIARA AVF cyclotron. It has been applied as a beam monitor for studying the characteristics of film dosimeters that are well-established for high doses of ⁶⁰Co γ-rays and 1 to 10 MeV electrons. A total absorption calorimeter designed to measure energy fluence has also been tested for estimating the uncertainty in fluence measurement of 5–20 MeV/amu ion beams, by simultaneous use of the calorimeter and the Faraday cup in a broad uniform fluence field. The estimated fluence was evaluated on the basis of nominal particle energy values derived from the cyclotron acceleration parameters. The average ratio of the measured fluence values to the estimated values is 1.024, and the average precision is within ±2% at a 68% confidence level, for most of the ion beams with a range of kinetic energy per nucleon, 5–20 MeV/amu, at an integrated charge above 5 nC/cm².     

环氧树脂电子束固化过程中的电子能量传播机制

将环氧树脂辐射固化过程中的温度分布和辐射固化后的固化度分布与反应前的电子能量沉积模拟计算结果相结合, 探讨电子束在辐射固化过程中的能量传播机制. 结果表明, 辐射开始初期, 固化反应发生前, 电子能量在聚丙烯模具内环氧树脂体系中的沉积满足离子注入理论, 即电子能量沉积在距辐射表面一定距离处达到最大, 然后随辐射距离的增加沉积能量减小; 而在玻璃模具内的树脂体系中, 电子能量从辐射表面向里逐渐降低. 随体系中固化反应的发生, 最大电子浓度区域转移, 最终出现在临近最大电子沉积浓度区域辐射深度稍远的地方. 能量吸收和反应放热导致的升温不影响树脂固化度大小, 但会影响固化度分布.     

Photon energy limits for food irradiation: a feasibility study

The penetrating nature of the photons produced by the X-ray (bremsstrahlung) process makes them attractive for the treatment of dense materials in industrial radiation processing. The inefficiency of the conversion process can be balanced by the exposure of high Z materials to electrons with high energy. However, activation of the product being irradiated and the equipment imposes energy limits. Results of a theoretical and experimental study to investigate the key parameters have resulted in recommendations for the design of X-ray converters in the electron energy range 7 to 11 MeV. Results of the Monte Carlo calculations and the methods used in conversion experiments with the 50 kW IMPELA accelerator are reported.     

Ultra-low intensity electron beams of a linear accelerator for irradiation

Ultra-low intensity electron pulsed beams for irradiation have been developed by the use of the electron linear accelerator at Radiation Research Center of Osaka Prefecture University. The energy and the pulse width of the beams are about 4–12 MeV and 0.5–4 μs, respectively. The minimum beam charge has been estimated to be about several aC/pulse. These electrons are basically mono energetic, controllable, collimated and synchronized with the master oscillator of the accelerator, which are favorable features for various uses compared with β-ray sources. Especially, the system is suitable for evaluation of response of radiation detectors. In this study, the response of the TLD for high energetic electron irradiation was also evaluated by the use of these electrons.     

Hydrolysis, Condensation, and Tetragonal Phase Formation in Sol-Gel Zirconia Prepared with Electron-Irradiated Alkoxide Solutions

Sol-gel zirconia precursor, zirconium n-butoxide in ter-butanol, was irradiated with 1.3 MeV electrons to a dose of 330 KGy. Gelling was instantaneously produced when an aqueous solution of sulfuric, hydrochloric or acetic acid was added to the irradiated solution; no hydrolysis catalyst was required. Samples were characterized with X-ray powder diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, and electron paramagnetic resonance. The electron irradiation accelerated hydrolysis and condensation, which avoided the stabilization of the tetragonal phase via carboxyls, and decreased the capability of sulfate ions to stabilize it. These results suggest that the stabilization of the tetragonal phase of sol-gel zirconia via carboxyl and sulfate ions depends on their diffusion in the sol.     

Radial dose profiles for pencil electron beams

The relationship between the Boltzmann and Fermi-Eyges-Yang equations governing electron transport is examined. Radial dose profiles for a pencil beam obtained by numerical solution of the Boltzmann equation in the small angle approximation are compared with both the Gaussian approximation and with Monte Carlo simulations for a carbon medium. For energies ranging from 5 to 20 MeV and penetration depths up to 75% of the range the numerical results are within 10% of the Monte Carlo results for the radial distance encompassing 63% of the energy deposition.     

100-femtosecond MeV electron source for ultrafast electron diffraction

A near-relativistic 100-fs MeV electron beam is developed by using a photocathode rf gun for revealing the hidden ultrafast dynamics of intricate molecular and atomic processes in materials through experimentation of ultrafast time-resolved electron diffraction (UED). The transverse and longitudinal dynamics of femtosecond electron beam in the rf gun were studied theoretically by particle simulation. The growths of the emittance, bunch length and energy spread due to the rf and space charge effects were investigated by changing the laser parameters, field gradient and electron charge. The theoretical studies indicate that a 100-fs MeV electron beam with the transverse emittance of 0.1 mm mrad and the relative energy spread of 10⁻³–10⁻⁴ at bunch charge of 0.1–2 pC (10⁶–10⁷ electrons per pulse) is achievable for UED, in which the intensity is three orders of magnitude higher than that produced by the conventional dc or pulsed guns.