Time domain attenuation estimation method from ultrasonic backscattered signals

Ultrasonic attenuation is important not only as a parameter for characterizing tissue but also for compensating other parameters that are used to classify tissues. Several techniques have been explored for estimating ultrasonic attenuation from backscattered signals. In the present study, a technique is developed to estimate the local ultrasonic attenuation coefficient by analyzing the time domain backscattered signal. The proposed method incorporates an objective function that combines the diffraction pattern of the source/receiver with the attenuation slope in an integral equation. The technique was assessed through simulations and validated through experiments with a tissue mimicking phantom and fresh rabbit liver samples. The attenuation values estimated using the proposed technique were compared with the attenuation estimated using insertion loss measurements. For a data block size of 15 pulse lengths axially and 15 beamwidths laterally, the mean attenuation estimates from the tissue mimicking phantoms were within 10% of the estimates using insertion loss measurements. With a data block size of 20 pulse lengths axially and 20 beamwidths laterally, the error in the attenuation values estimated from the liver samples were within 10% of the attenuation values estimated from the insertion loss measurements.     

Detection of bone disease with ultrasound--comparison with bone densitometry

A system for ultrasonic in-vivo examination of a heel bone (calcaneus) was developed. When operating in transmission mode, the system can measure broadband ultrasonic attenuation-BUA, speed of sound--SOS and thickness of bone. BUA and SOS are measured by comparing the pulses transmitted through the heel with the reference pulse transmitted through water. In our approach, we operate in the backscattered mode in addition to transmission. The backscattered ultrasonic technique for bone characterization is very promising because the magnitude of backscattered waves depends on the scattering cross-section of a trabecular structure that, to some extent, describes the microarchitecture of a calcaneus. Additionally, when the backscattered and transmitted signals are compared, some of the signal distortions caused by tissue and bone interfaces are reduced. A set of data representing signals transmitted through the heel and reflected inside a calcaneus for patients with osteoporosis was collected. Several signal-processing techniques were applied in order to smooth the backscattered signal and to calculate a trabecular structure cros-section (TSC) function. Results obtained by these approaches along with a spectral shift method and a standard BUA measurement are presented and compared to X-ray bone mineral density determination results.     

Imaging of a test object with a trapezoidal profile and large side wall inclinations in a scanning electron microscope in the backscattered electron mode

Analysis of imaging of relief pitch structures with trapezoidal profile of relief elements and large side wall inclinations has been carried out in scanning electron microscope in the modes of collection of secondary slow electrons and backscattered electrons. It is shown that the forms of signals of secondary slow electrons and backscattered electrons depend on the structure-element position: close to the pitch-structure edge or far from it. However, the behavior of the signal parameters is independent of the element position. It is demonstrated that the sizes of the parameters of backscattered electron signals characterizing the bottom bases of protrusions and trenches are determined by the true sizes of the bottom bases of the structure elements. At the same time, the sizes of the parameters of the backscattered electron signals that characterize the top bases of protrusions are larger, while those of the trenches are smaller than the sizes determined by the true sizes of the top bases of protrusions and trenches.     

Ultrasound attenuation estimation using backscattered echoes from multiple sources

The objective of this study was to devise an algorithm that can accurately estimate the attenuation along the propagation path (i.e., the total attenuation) from backscattered echoes. It was shown that the downshift in the center frequency of the backscattered ultrasound echoes compared to echoes obtained in a water bath was calculated to have the form Deltaf=mf(o)+b after normalizing with respect to the source bandwidth where m depends on the correlation length, b depends on the total attenuation, and f(o) is the center frequency of the source as measured from a reference echo. Therefore, the total attenuation can be determined independent of the scatterer correlation length by measuring the downshift in center frequency from multiple sources (i.e., different f(o)) and fitting a line to the measured shifts versus f(o). The intercept of the line gives the total attenuation along the propagation path. The calculations were verified using computer simulations of five spherically focused sources with 50% bandwidths and center frequencies of 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 MHz. The simulated tissue had Gaussian scattering structures with effective radii of 25 mum placed at a density of 250 mm(3). The attenuation of the tissue was varied from 0.1 to 0.9 dB / cm-MHz. The error in the attenuation along the propagation path ranged from -3.5+/-14.7% for a tissue attenuation of 0.1 dB / cm-MHz to -7.0+/-3.1% for a tissue attenuation of 0.9 dB / cm-MHz demonstrating that the attenuation along the propagation path could be accurately determined using backscattered echoes from multiple sources using the derived algorithm.     

Influence of cell packing by centrifugation on 40-MHz ultrasound backscatter

High-frequency ultrasound (HFUS) signals backscattered from RBL-2H3 cell pellets prepared under different centrifugal forces were analyzed to investigate the packing effect of cell aggregates. The measurements were performed in a pulse-echo setup with a 40-MHz transducer. The changes of ultrasound signals from cell pellet in backscattered power, statistical parameter, and pellet thickness were monitored after centrifugation at between 100g and 1600g. Experimental results showed that the HFUS backscattered power from cell pellets was inversely proportional to centrifugal force and increased to a plateau within 1-2 h after centrifugation. The initial thickness of cell pellets decreased with higher centrifugal force, but the changes in thickness and time that took to reach a plateau increased at higher centrifugal force. The envelope statistics of backscattered signals with Nakagami distribution indicates that the centrifugal force and elapsed time after centrifugation affected the backscattering characteristics. The present study suggests that centrifugal force and data acquisition time after cell pellet formation should be considered in in vitro cell packing method with centrifugation to emulate the tissue in vivo.     

Chaotic signal detection and estimation based on attractor sets: applications to secure communications

We consider the problem of detection and estimation of chaotic signals in the presence of white Gaussian noise. Traditionally this has been a difficult problem since generalized likelihood ratio tests are difficult to implement due to the chaotic nature of the signals of interest. Based on Poincare's recurrence theorem we derive an algorithm for approximating a chaotic time series with unknown initial conditions. The algorithm approximates signals using elements carefully chosen from a dictionary constructed based on the chaotic signal's attractor. We derive a detection approach based on the signal estimation algorithm and show, with simulated data, that the new approach can outperform other methods for chaotic signal detection. Finally, we describe how the attractor based detection scheme can be used in a secure binary digital communications protocol.     

Using ultrasound Nakagami imaging to assess liver fibrosis in rats

This study explored the feasibility of using the ultrasound Nakagami image to assess the degree of liver fibrosis in rats. The rat has been widely used as a model in investigations of liver fibrosis. Ultrasound grayscale imaging makes it possible to observe fibrotic rat livers in real time. Statistical analysis of the envelopes of signals backscattered from rat livers may provide useful clues about the degree of liver fibrosis. The Nakagami-model-based image has been shown to be useful for characterizing scatterers in tissues by reflecting the echo statistics, and hence the Nakagami image may serve as a functional imaging tool for quantifying rat liver fibrosis. To validate this idea, fibrosis was induced in each rat liver (n = 21) by an intraperitoneal injection of 0.5% dimethylnitrosamine. Livers were excised from rats for in vitro ultrasound scanning using a single-element transducer. The backscattered-signal envelopes of the acquired raw ultrasound signals were used for Nakagami imaging. The Metavir score determined by a pathologist was used to histologically quantify the degree of liver fibrosis. It was found that the Nakagami image could be used to distinguish different degrees of liver fibrosis in rats, since the average Nakagami parameter increased from 0.55 to 0.83 as the fibrosis score increased from 0 (i.e., normal) to 4. This correlation may be due to liver fibrosis in rats involving an increase in the concentration of local scatterers and the appearance of the periodic structures or clustering of scatterers that would change the backscattering statistics. The current findings indicate that the ultrasound Nakagami image has great potential as a functional imaging tool to complement the use of the conventional B-scan in animal studies of liver fibrosis.     

基于回波信号仿真的瑞利-喇曼-米激光雷达研制

 在分析瑞利、喇曼和米散射仿真回波信号的基础上,研制了一台探测大气温度、气溶胶和卷云的瑞利-喇曼-米散射激光雷达,实现了一台激光雷达针对大气温度、气溶胶和卷云光学特性的多参数探测。为提高瑞利和喇曼微弱回波信号信噪比,采用了极高灵敏度的R4632光电倍增管和光子计数技术;为实现对大气气溶胶和卷云的探测,532 nm回波信号采取高低分层技术、高层通道回波衰减方法和探测器门控技术。瑞利-喇曼-米散射激光雷达的探测结果证明了利用仿真回波信号指导激光雷达设计的可行性。     

Low-field magnetic resonance imaging using multiplicative regularization

In this paper we present a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique that is based on multiplicative regularization. Instead of adding a regularizing objective function to a data fidelity term, we multiply by such a regularizing function. By following this approach, no regularization parameter needs to be determined for each new data set that is acquired. Reconstructions are obtained by iteratively updating the images using short-term conjugate gradient-type update formulas and Polak-Ribière update directions. We show that the algorithm can be used as an image reconstruction algorithm and as a denoising algorithm. We illustrate the performance of the algorithm on two-dimensional simulated low-field MR data that is corrupted by noise and on three-dimensional measured data obtained from a low-field MR scanner. Our reconstruction results show that the algorithm effectively suppresses noise and produces accurate reconstructions even for low-field MR signals with a low signal-to-noise ratio.     

日盲紫外域拉曼激光雷达探测大气水汽技术研究

拉曼激光雷达通过探测与水汽浓度相关的大气水汽振动拉曼散射回波信号,可实现大气水汽混合比廓线的探测。然而由于振动拉曼信号非常微弱,在白天测量时振动拉曼散射光谱会淹没在太阳背景光中,多在夜间测量。为实现大气水汽的全天时测量,设计开发一套日盲紫外波段拉曼激光雷达系统。该系统选择Nd∶YAG脉冲激光器的四倍频输出-266.0 nm日盲紫外波段作为拉曼激光雷达系统的激励波长,采用镀高增益介质膜的牛顿式望远镜作为接收器,同时利用二向色镜和超窄带干涉滤光片设计高效率的高光谱分光系统,实现了大气氧气、氮气和水汽振动拉曼散射回波信号277.5,283.6和294.6 nm的精细提取。计算仿真结果表明,臭氧吸收对日盲紫外域拉曼激光雷达探测存在一定的影响,主要是探测距离的影响;氮气通道不受白天太阳背景光噪声的影响;水汽通道存在少量太阳背景光噪声,对系统探测距离略有影响。而系统信噪比计算结果表明,设计的日盲紫外域拉曼激光雷达系统可实现白天3.5 km大气水汽的探测。实际进行水汽探测时,可利用氮气和氧气通道反演出臭氧浓度廓线,修正臭氧对发射波长、各通道拉曼散射波长的吸收,进一步提升系统的探测能力和探测精度。     

Analysis of light propagation in highly scattering media by path-length-assigned Monte Carlo simulations

Numerical analysis of optical propagation in highly scattering media is investigated when light is normally incident to the surface and re-emerges backward from the same point. This situation corresponds to practical light scattering setups, such as in optical coherence tomography. The simulation uses the path-length-assigned Monte Carlo method based on an ellipsoidal algorithm. The spatial distribution of the scattered light is determined and the dependence of its width and penetration depth on the path-length is found. The backscattered light is classified into three types, in which ballistic, snake, and diffuse photons are dominant.     

A novel ultrasound instrument for investigation of arterial mechanics

The study of arterial mechanics concerns functional characteristics depending on wall elasticity and flow profile. Wall elasticity can be investigated through the estimation of parameters like the arterial distensibility, which is of high clinical interest because of its known correlation not only with the advanced atherosclerotic disease, but also with aging and major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The flow velocity profile is also clinically relevant, because it modulates endothelial function and can be responsible for the development and distribution of atherosclerotic plaques. A clinically relevant variable extracted from the blood velocity profile is the wall shear rate (WSR), which represents the spatial velocity gradient near the vessel wall. This paper describes an integrated ultrasound system, capable of detecting both the velocity profile and the wall movements in human arteries. It basically consists of a PC add-on board including a single high-speed digital signal processor. This is dedicated to the analysis of echo-signals backscattered from 128 range cells located along the axis of the interrogating ultrasound (US) beam. Echoes generated from the walls (characterized by high amplitudes and low Doppler frequencies) and from red blood cells (characterized by low amplitudes and relatively high Doppler frequencies) are independently processed in real-time. Wall velocity is detected through the autocorrelation algorithm, while blood velocity is investigated through a complete spectral analysis of all signals backscattered by erythrocytes and WSR is extracted from the estimated velocity profile. Preliminary applications of the new system, including the simultaneous analysis of blood flow and arterial wall movement in healthy volunteers and in a diseased patient, are discussed, and first results are presented.     

Improved algorithm for estimation of attenuation along propagation path using backscattered echoes from multiple sources

Accurately determining the attenuation along the propagation path leading to a region of interest could significantly improve diagnostic ultrasound tissue characterization since tissue characterization requires exact compensation for the frequency-dependent attenuation along the propagation path. In a previous study (JASA, 124:1367, 2008), it was shown that the total attenuation can be determined by using the backscattered echoes from multiple sources. The preliminary computer simulation results, had an average error between ?0.3 and +0.2 dB/MHz for the cases tested with a trend towards increasing error with increasing correlation length (i.e., characteristic size of the tissue microstructure of the scattering medium) and attenuation along the propagation path. Therefore, the goal of this study was to improve the accuracy of previously derived algorithm and reduce the dependence of the algorithm on correlation length and attenuation. In this study, the previous derivations were redone and the assumptions made by the algorithm regarding the scattering properties of the medium and the shape of the backscattered power spectrum were relaxed. The revised algorithm was then verified using computer simulations of five sources (6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 MHz, 50% bandwidth) exposing a homogeneous tissue region. The simulated tissue had microstructure following a Gaussian spatial correlation function (i.e., exp (?0.827(ka_eff)²) where k is the wavenumber) with effective radii, a_eff, of 5–55 μm (one size per simulated case) placed at a density of 250/mm³ (～5 scatterers/resolution cell for 14 MHz transducer). The attenuation of the tissue was also varied from 0.1 to 0.9 dB/cm-MHz. The computer simulations demonstrated that the modifications significantly improved the accuracy of the algorithm resulting in average errors between ?0.04 and 0.1 dB/MHz which is three times better than the error performance of the original algorithm.     

基于深度学习的材料超声回波衰减预测方法

材料超声回波衰减是评价材料均匀一致性的常用方法, 针对具有复杂结构的航空发动机盘件难以进行材料底面超声回波衰减评价的问题, 本文提出了利用超声背散射波信号直接预测底面回波衰减的方法。采用10MHz聚焦探头进行超声背散射波数据的采集, 利用深度学习技术构建和训练模型,建立了基于深度学习的材料底面回波衰减预测方法, 同时讨论了采用不同信号形式的超声波信号分类识别模型的准确率差异。研究发现：基于深度学习技术可实现通过超声背散射波预测材料的底面回波衰减, 预测结果和实际底面回波衰减试验结果具有良好的一致性。     

A novel power spectrum calculation method using phase-compensation and weighted averaging for the estimation of ultrasound attenuation

An estimation of ultrasound attenuation in soft tissues is critical in the quantitative ultrasound analysis since it is not only related to the estimations of other ultrasound parameters, such as speed of sound, integrated scatterers, or scatterer size, but also provides pathological information of the scanned tissue. However, estimation performances of ultrasound attenuation are intimately tied to the accurate extraction of spectral information from the backscattered radiofrequency (RF) signals. In this paper, we propose two novel techniques for calculating a block power spectrum from the backscattered ultrasound signals. These are based on the phase-compensation of each RF segment using the normalized cross-correlation to minimize estimation errors due to phase variations, and the weighted averaging technique to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The simulation results with uniform numerical phantoms demonstrate that the proposed method estimates local attenuation coefficients within 1.57% of the actual values while the conventional methods estimate those within 2.96%. The proposed method is especially effective when we deal with the signal reflected from the deeper depth where the SNR level is lower or when the gated window contains a small number of signal samples. Experimental results, performed at 5 MHz, were obtained with a one-dimensional 128 elements array, using the tissue-mimicking phantoms also show that the proposed method provides better estimation results (within 3.04% of the actual value) with smaller estimation variances compared to the conventional methods (within 5.93%) for all cases considered.     

Modeling the frequency dependence (5-120 MHz) of ultrasound backscattering by red cell aggregates in shear flow at a normal hematocrit

The frequency dependence of the ultrasound signal backscattered by blood in shear flow was studied using a simulation model. The ultrasound backscattered signal was computed with a linear model that considers the characteristics of the ultrasound system and tissue acoustic properties. The tissue scattering properties were related to the position and shape of the red blood cells (RBCs). A 2D microrheological model simulated the RBC dynamics in a Couette shear flow system. This iterative model, described earlier [Biophys. J. 82, 1696-1710 (2002)], integrates the hydrodynamic effect of the flow, as well as adhesive and repulsive forces between RBCs. RBC aggregation was simulated at 40% hematocrit and shear rates of 0.05-2 s(-1). The RBC aggregate sizes ranged, on average, from 3.3 RBCs at 2 s(-1) to 33.5 cells at 0.05 s(-1). The ultrasound backscattered power was studied at frequencies between 5-120 MHz and insonification angles between 0-180 degrees. At frequencies below approximately 30 MHz, the ultrasound backscattered power increased as the shear rate was decreased and the size of the aggregates was raised. A totally different scattering behavior was noted above 30 MHz. Typical spectral slopes of the backscattered power (log-log scale) between 5-25 MHz equaled 3.8, whereas slopes down to 0.6 were measured at 0.05 s(-1), between 40-60 MHz. The ultrasound backscattered power was shown to be angle dependent at low frequencies (5-25 MHz). The anisotropy persisted at high frequencies (>25 MHz) for small aggregates (at 2 s(-1)). In conclusion, this study sheds some light on the blood backscattering behavior with an emphasis on the non-Rayleigh regime. Additional experimental studies may be necessary to validate the simulation results, and to fully understand the relation between the ultrasound backscattered power, level of RBC aggregation, shear rate, frequency, and insonification angle.     

Detection of weak signals using fast projection algorithms

The problem of detecting weak signals in complex noise situations using projection adaptive algorithms is considered. The existing algorithms are analyzed, and a novel algorithm oriented at detecting weak signals is proposed. Results of the algorithm’s operation are demonstrated in a simulated noise situation consisting of interference signals with different intensities under the assumption of their multipath propagation and scattering. The proposed algorithm is compared with the well-known classical Capon algorithm, and a significant reduction in the contact loss time as applied to a low-noise target near strong interference sources is demonstrated.     

基于时频分析的多目标盲波束形成算法

针对现有盲波束形成算法适用范围较窄, 多目标信号分离级联模式结构复杂、并联模式稳定性较差等问题, 提出一种基于时频分析的多目标盲波束形成算法. 该算法首先利用时频分析技术给出信号导向矢量的不确定集, 然后优化求解导向矢量的最优估计, 最后利用Capon方法实现多目标信号的并行输出. 理论分析及仿真结果表明, 该算法对信号特性没有特殊要求, 适用性较广, 性能稳定, 且输出信干噪比高于其他盲波束形成算法, 接近于最优Capon波束形成器.     

A measurement-domain adaptive beamforming approach for ultrasound instrument based on distributed compressed sensing: Initial development

High efficient acquisition of the sensor array signals and accurate reconstruction of the backscattering medium are important issues in ultrasound imaging instrument. This paper presents a novel measurement-domain adaptive beamforming approach (MABF) based on distributed compressed sensing (DCS) which seeks to simultaneously measure signals that are each individually sparse in some domain(s) and also mutually correlated with much few measurements under the Nyquist rate. Instead of sampling conventional backscattering signals at the Nyquist rate, few linear projections of the returned signal with random vectors are taken as measurements, which can reduce the amount of samples per channel greatly and makes the real-time transmission of sensor array data possible. Then high resolution ultrasound image is reconstructed from the few measurements of DCS directly by the proposed MABF algorithm without recovering the raw sensor signals with complex convex optimization algorithm. The simulated results show the effectiveness of the proposed method.     

Classification of communication signals of the little brown bat

Little brown bats, Myotis lucifugus, are known for their ability to echolocate and utilize their echolocation system to navigate, and locate and identify prey. Their echolocation signals have been characterized in detail but their communication signals are less well understood despite their widespread use during social interactions. The goal of this study was to develop an automatic classification algorithm for characterizing the communication signals of little brown bats. Sound recordings were made overnight on five individual male bats (housed separately from a large group of captive bats) for 7 nights, using a bat detector and a digital recorder. The spectral and temporal characteristics of recorded sounds were first analyzed and classified by visual observation of a call's temporal pattern and spectral composition. Sounds were later classified using an automatic classification scheme based on multivariate statistical parameters in MATLAB. Human- and machine-based analysis revealed five discrete classes of bat's communication signals: downward frequency-modulated calls, steep frequency-modulated calls, constant frequency calls, broadband noise bursts, and broadband click trains.