Design, preparation, and study of catalytic gated baskets

We report a diastereoselective synthetic method to obtain a family of catalytic molecular baskets containing a spacious cavity (~570 ?(3)). These supramolecular catalysts were envisioned, via the process of gating, to control the access of substrates to the embedded catalytic center and thereby modulate the outcome of chemical reactions. In particular, gated basket 1 comprises a porphyrin "floor" fused to four phthalimide "side walls" each carrying a revolving aromatic "gate". With the assistance of (1)H NMR and UV-vis spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the small 1-methylimidazole guest (12, 94 ?(3)) would coordinate to the interior while the larger 1,5-diadamantylimidazole guest (14, 361 ?(3)) is relegated to the exterior of basket Zn(II)-1. Subsequently, we examined the epoxidation of differently sized and shaped alkenes 18-21 with catalytic baskets 12(in)-Mn(III)-1 and 14(out)-Mn(III)-1 in the presence of the sacrificial oxidant iodosylarene. The epoxidation of cis-stilbene occurred in the cavity of 14(out)-Mn(III)-1 and at the outer face of 12(in)-Mn(III)-1 with the stereoselectivity of the two transformations being somewhat different. Importantly, catalytic basket 14(out)-Mn(III)-1 was capable of kinetically resolving an equimolar mixture of cis-2-octene 20 and cis-cyclooctene 21 via promotion of the transformation in its cavity.     

一种新型手性席夫碱的合成及其在不对称环丙烷化反应中的催化性能

在不对称催化的发展过程中,设计与合成新的手性配体一直是人们所关注的热点,并已取得很大的进展[1].     

Synthesis, characterization, and catalytic reactivity of a highly basic macrotricyclic aminopyridine

The synthesis methods, physicochemical and structural characteristics, and catalytic reactivity of new macrocyclic proton chelators, N,N',N'-tris(p-tolyl)azacalix[3](2,6)(4-pyrrolidinopyridine) and N,N',N'-tris(p-tolyl)azacalix[3](2,6)(4-piperidinopyridine), are studied. The introduction of pyrrolidino and piperidino groups into the pyridine unit enables the enhancement of the synergistic proton affinity of the cavity of the macrotricycle giving a high basicity (pK(BH+) = 28.1 and 27.1 in CD(3)CN), resulting in a catalytic activity for the Michael addition of nitromethane with α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds.     

Three Aromatic Residues are Required for Electron Transfer during Iron Mineralization in Bacterioferritin

Ferritins are iron storage proteins that overcome the problems of toxicity and poor bioavailability of iron by catalyzing iron oxidation and mineralization through the activity of a diiron ferroxidase site. Unlike in other ferritins, the oxidized di‐Fe³⁺ site of Escherichia coli bacterioferritin (EcBFR) is stable and therefore does not function as a conduit for the transfer of Fe³⁺ into the storage cavity, but instead acts as a true catalytic cofactor that cycles its oxidation state while driving Fe²⁺ oxidation in the cavity. Herein, we demonstrate that EcBFR mineralization depends on three aromatic residues near the diiron site, Tyr25, Tyr58, and Trp133, and that a transient radical is formed on Tyr25. The data indicate that the aromatic residues, together with a previously identified inner surface iron site, promote mineralization by ensuring the simultaneous delivery of two electrons, derived from Fe²⁺ oxidation in the BFR cavity, to the di‐ferric catalytic site for safe reduction of O₂.     

A supramolecular approach to an allosteric catalyst

The design and synthesis of a novel, supramolecular allosteric catalyst system, assembled via the weak-link approach, is presented. The catalyst contains two structural Rh(I) centers in thioether- and phosphine-rich hemilabile pockets, and two functional Cr(III) centers bound within salen-based moieties. The catalytic properties of the supramolecular catalyst are compared to those of a Cr(III)-salen monomeric analogue in the context of the asymmetric ring opening of cyclohexene oxide by TMSN3. Allosteric control is afforded via reactions that occur at distal sites which open the macrocyclic cavity and facilitate the catalytic reaction. Kinetic data show a significant rate increase upon opening of the catalyst's flexible macrocyclic cavity and enhanced selectivity and reactivity with respect to the monomeric Cr(III)-salen analogue. The work presented represents a new approach to the construction of abiotic allosteric catalysts.     

Schiff碱配合物模拟酶催化性能的结构效应研究

研究了新型Schiff碱双锰及双铁配合物在模拟酶催化PhIO单加氧化环己烷反应及被PhIO氧化破坏反应中的结构效应.结果表明,随着这些配合物的环内空腔逐渐增大,其抗氧化稳定性、催化活性及催化反应产率依次降低.配合物中最佳螯合环为五元环.     

Supramolecular catalysis of unimolecular rearrangements: substrate scope and mechanistic insights

A cavity-containing metal-ligand assembly is employed as a catalytic host for the 3-aza Cope rearrangement of allyl enammonium cations. Upon binding, the rates of rearrangement are accelerated for all substrates studied, up to 850-fold. Activation parameters were measured for three enammonium cations in order to understand the origins of acceleration. Those parameters reveal that the supramolecular structure is able to reduce both the entropic and enthalpic barriers for rearrangement and is highly sensitive to small structural changes of the substrate. The space-restrictive cavity preferentially binds closely packed, preorganized substrate conformations, which resemble the conformations of the transition states. This hypothesis is also supported by quantitative NOE studies of two encapsulated substrates, which place the two reacting carbon atoms in close proximity. The capsule can act as a true catalyst, since release and hydrolysis facilitate catalytic turnover. The question of product hydrolysis was addressed through detailed kinetic studies. We conclude that the iminium product must dissociate from the cavity interior and the assembly exterior before hydroxide-mediated hydrolysis, and propose the intermediacy of a tight ion pair of the polyanionic host with the exiting product.     

The Hexameric Resorcinarene Capsule at Work: Supramolecular Catalysis in Confined Spaces

The hexameric resorcinarene capsule reported by Atwood in 1997 is able to act as a supramolecular catalyst. Its inner cavity provides a unique environment, in which organic reactions can be efficiently catalyzed, thanks to the confinement effect of the substrates. In addition, different stereo- and regiochemical outcomes can be observed with respect to reactions in the bulk solvent. The hexameric capsule shows some catalytic features reminiscent of natural enzymes. In particular, highlights of the capsule discussed herein include 1) its ability to recognize the substrates (substrate selectivity), 2) the possibility of stabilizing the transition states and intermediates through secondary interactions, 3) an inherent Brønsted acidity, and 4) its ability to act as a hydrogen-bond catalyst. In addition, it is also shown how the catalytic activity of the hexameric capsule can be modulated in the presence of competitive alkylammonium guests, which show high affinities for its internal cavity. These aspects are discussed through a critical examination of data reported in the literature in recent years.     

冠醚-CuI混合催化剂的组份对溴代雌甾的亲核取代反应的影响

冠醚能与碱或盐的阳离子络合,从而使阴离子在非质子溶剂中成为“裸阴离子”,具有特别强的亲核性或硷性,所以在有机合成中获得广泛的应用。为了探求冠醚的应用范围,同时寻求一种既简便又宜于较大量制备雌甾甲氧基衍生物的方法,作者曾首次将冠醚用于雌甾衍生物的合成,设计了冠醚-亚铜盐混合催化体     

Supramolecular interaction controlled and calix[4]arene ligand assisted Pd-catalyzed C(sp3)−H arylation of aliphatic aldehydes

A calix[4]arene ligand assisted direct β-C?H arylation of tertiary aliphatic aldehydes has been developed via a Pd-catalyzed C(sp³)?H functionalization process. This strategy exhibited good functional group compatibility and C?H bond site-selectivity. Mechanism studies have shown that both synergistic effect and cationic-π supramolecular interaction between calixarene cavity and transition-metal catalytic center may play an important role in this catalytic cycle. This complementary method would be used in organic and medical chemistry due to the importance of tertiary aliphatic aldehydes.     

Assembly of a Nanoreactor System with Confined Magnetite Core and Shell for Enhanced Fenton‐Like Catalysis

Conventional solid catalysts for heterogeneous Fenton‐like reactions in bulk solution usually suffer from aggregation and vulnerability, which greatly lower the catalytic efficiency and hamper their practical application. Herein, we demonstrate a promising yolk–shell nanostructure with both the core and the shell composed of magnetite (designated as yolk‐like Fe₃O₄@Fe₃O₄/C) as a nanoreactor capable of accommodating the Fenton‐like reaction into its void space. Benefiting from the mesoporous shell and perfect interior cavity of this composite, reactants can access and be abundantly confined within the microenvironment where Fe₃O₄ sites are dispersed on the entire cavity surfaces, thus leading to a higher catalytic efficiency compared with the conventional solid catalysts in bulk solution. The chosen model reaction of chlorophenols degradation in the presence of the as‐prepared materials as well as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) confirms this assumption. Under the optimal reaction conditions, more than 97 % 4‐chlorophenol (4‐CP) can be degraded in the Fe₃O₄@Fe₃O₄/C nanoreactor, whereas only 28 % can be achieved by using bare Fe₃O₄ particles within 60 min. Furthermore, owing to the existence of the outermost carbon layer and high‐magnetization properties, the nanoreactor can be re‐used for several runs. The synthesized nanoreactor displays superior catalytic activity toward the Fenton‐like reaction compared with the bare solid catalysts, and thereby holds significant potential for practical application in environmental remediation.     

Thermodynamic properties of internal water molecules in the hydrophobic cavity around the catalytic center of cytochrome c oxidase

Cytochrome c oxidase is a redox-driven proton pump that creates a membrane proton gradient responsible for driving ATP synthesis in aerobic cells. The crystal structure of the enzyme has been recently solved; however, the details of the mechanism of its proton pumping remain unknown. The enzyme internal water molecules play a key role in proton translocation through the enzyme. Here, we examine the thermodynamic properties of internal water in a hydrophobic cavity around the catalytic center of the enzyme. The crystal structure does not show any water molecules in this region; it is believed, however, that, since protons are delivered to the catalytic center, where the reduction of molecular oxygen occurs, at least some water molecules must be present there. The goal of the present study was to examine how many water molecules are present in the catalytic center cavity and why these water molecules are not observed in the crystal structure of the enzyme. The behavior of water molecules is discussed in the context of redox-coupled proton translocation in the enzyme.     

Functional mimicry of carboxypeptidase A by a combination of transition state stabilization and a defined orientation of catalytic moieties in molecularly imprinted polymers

An artificial model for the natural enzyme carboxypeptidase A has been constructed by molecular imprinting in synthetic polymers. The tetrahedral transition state analogues (TSAs 4 and 5) for the carbonate hydrolysis have been designed as templates to allow incorporation of the main catalytic elements, an amidinium group and a Zn(2+) or Cu(2+) center, in a defined orientation in the transition state imprinted active site. The complexation of the functional monomer and the template in presence of Cu(2+) through stoichiometric noncovalent interaction was established on the basis of (1)H NMR studies and potentiometric titration. The Cu(2+) center was introduced into the imprinted cavity during polymerization or by substitution of Zn(2+) in Zn(2+) imprinted polymers. The direct introduction displayed obvious advantages in promoting catalytic efficiency. With substrates exhibiting a very similar structure to the template, an extraordinarily high enhancement of the rate of catalyzed to uncatalyzed reaction (k(cat)/k(uncat)) of 10(5)-fold was observed. If two amidinium moieties are introduced in proximity to one Cu(2+) center in the imprinted cavity by complexation of the functional monomer 3 with the template 5, the imprinted catalysts exhibited even higher activities and efficiencies for the carbonate hydrolysis with k(cat)/k(uncat) as high as 410,000. These are by far the highest values obtained for molecularly imprinted catalysts, and they are also considerably higher compared to catalytic antibodies. Our kinetic studies and competitive inhibition experiments with the TSA template showed a clear indication of a very efficient imprinting procedure. In addition, this demonstrates the important role of the transition state stabilization during the catalysis of this reaction.     

Design of Single Gold Atoms on Nitrogen‐Doped Carbon for Molecular Recognition in Alkyne Semi‐Hydrogenation

Single‐atom heterogeneous catalysts with well‐defined architectures are promising for deriving structure–performance relationships, but the challenge lies in finely tuning the structural and electronic properties of the metal. To tackle this point, a new approach based on the surface diffusion of gold atoms on different cavities of N‐doped carbon is presented. By controlling the activation temperature, the coordination neighbors (Cl, O, N) and the oxidation state of the metal can be tailored. Semi‐hydrogenation of various alkynes on the single‐atom gold catalysts displays substrate‐dependent catalytic responses; structure insensitive for alkynols with γ‐OH and unfunctionalized alkynes, and sensitive for alkynols with α‐OH. Density functional theory links the sensitivity for alkynols to the strong interaction between the substrate and specific gold‐cavity ensembles, mimicking a molecular recognition pattern that allows to identify the cavity site and to enhance the catalytic activity.     

Electrochemical Properties of a Binuclear Cobalt-Containing Macroheterocycle with an Enlarged Coordination Cavity

The catalytic activity of a binuclear complex of a macroheterocyclic compound (MHCC) containing cobalt(II) and having an enlarged coordination cavity is studied by cyclic voltammetry. Basic features of the electrochemical behavior of MHCC Co₂O₂ in alkaline solution are found. The complex has a higher catalytic activity as compared to cobalt phthalocyanine.     

Playing with podands based on cone-shaped cavities. How can a cavity influence the properties of an appended metal centre?

The potential of molecules that combine the properties of a conical cavity with those of a covalently-linked transition-metal centre is highlighted through the assessment of cyclodextrin- and calixarene-derived podands ("cavitand" ligands) in coordination chemistry and catalysis. Metallocavitands with coordination sites directed towards the interior of the generic cavity provide interesting systems for studying host-guest complexation processes, their enhanced strength of metal-ion binding allowing for regioselective catalysis in a confined environment, and stabilisation of coordination complexes of unusual forms. Where cavitands have exo-oriented podand arms, the intrinsic dynamics of the cavity can dramatically modify metal chelation behaviour and the catalytic properties of the complexes. Such functionalised cavities are also useful as metal-ion transporters.     

Supramolecular control on chemo- and regioselectivity via encapsulation of (NHC)-Au catalyst within a hexameric self-assembled host

The encapsulation of a Au(I) catalyst within a self-assembled, hydrogen bonded, hexameric capsule dramatically changes its catalytic activity, leading to unusual products due to the steric requirements of the host's cavity.     

Behavior of Ag3 clusters inside a nanometer-sized space of ZSM-5 zeolite

We found from DFT calculations that Ag-Ag orbital interactions as well as Ag-O electrostatic interactions determine the structures of three silver cations inside a nanometer-sized cavity of ZSM-5 (Ag(3)-ZSM-5) in lower and higher spin states. Both interactions strongly depend on the number of Al atoms substituted for Si atoms on the ZSM-5 framework (ZSM-5(Al(n))), where n ranges from 1 to 3. In smaller n, stronger Ag-Ag orbital interactions and weaker Ag-O electrostatic interactions operate. Accordingly, there are significant dependencies of the structures of three silver cations on the number of Al atoms. In lower spin states of Ag(3)-ZSM-5(Al(1)) and Ag(3)-ZSM-5(Al(2)), D(3h)-like triangle clusters are contained inside ZSM-5 whereas their higher spin states have triangle clusters distorted significantly from the D(3h) structure. In lower spin states, the totally symmetric orbital consisting of 5s(Ag) orbitals is responsible for cluster formation, whereas in higher spin states occupation of a 5s(Ag)-based orbital with one node results in significant distortion of the triangle clusters. The distortion can be partially understood by analogies to Jahn-Teller distortion of the bare D(3h) Ag(3)(+) cluster in the triplet spin state. When n is 3, we found that three silver cations are isolated in a lower spin state and that a linear cluster consisting of two silver cations is formed in a higher spin state. Thus, we demonstrate from DFT calculations that the number of Al atoms can control the properties of three silver cations inside a ZSM-5 cavity. Since the structural and electronic features of the enclosed silver clusters can link to their catalytic properties, the DFT findings can help us to understand the catalytic activity of Ag-ZSM-5.     

Cavity Catalysis by Cooperative Vibrational Strong Coupling of Reactant and Solvent Molecules

Here, we report the catalytic effect of vibrational strong coupling (VSC) on the solvolysis of para‐nitrophenyl acetate (PNPA), which increases the reaction rate by an order of magnitude. This is observed when the microfluidic Fabry–Perot cavity in which the VSC is generated is tuned to the C=O vibrational stretching mode of both the reactant and solvent molecules. Thermodynamic experiments confirm the catalytic nature of VSC in the system. The change in the reaction rate follows an exponential relation with respect to the coupling strength of the solvent, indicating a cooperative effect between the solvent molecules and the reactant. Furthermore, the study of the solvent kinetic isotope effect clearly shows that the vibrational overlap of the C=O vibrational bands of the reactant and the strongly coupled solvent molecules is critical for the catalysis in this reaction. The combination of cooperative effects and cavity catalysis confirms the potential of VSC as a new frontier in chemistry.     

具有丰富介孔Cu-SAPO-34催化剂制备及其低温氨气选择性催化还原反应(英文)

氮氧化物(NO_x)是主要的大气污染物之一,与光化学烟雾、全球气候变暖等环境问题密切相关.随着汽车产业的高速发展,柴油车排放尾气中的NOx脱除成为国内外尾气催化净化领域最突出的难点之一.其中氨气选择性催化还原技术(NH_3-SCR)由于其高效率、低成本的特征已成为主要的移动源脱硝技术.目前,实际应用中最广泛的是V_2O_5-WO_3(MoO_3)/TiO_2催化剂,然而一些不可避免的因素仍然存在,比如V具有较强的毒性,较高的操作温度,较窄的活性温度窗口以及易将SO_2氧化为SO_3导致催化剂表面会有大量的硫酸盐沉积而失活等.因此很有必要开发一种无钒SCR催化剂.近年来,分子筛负载过渡金属作为催化剂引起了研究者的广泛兴趣,其中Cu-CHA分子筛催化剂因其高SCR活性,高N2选择性,较宽的温度窗口以及优异的稳定性引起研究者的广泛关注.就Cu/SAPO-34而言,传统的制备方法是利用离子交换法将Cu离子引入到SAPO-34微孔孔道中,然而由于微孔会限制Cu离子的分布,导致绝大多数Cu优先分布在分子筛外表面,从而限制了其活性发挥.Martínez-Franco课题组利用双模板一步法成功制备了Cu-SAPO-34催化剂,提高了分子筛中活性Cu离子数目.Peden课题组发现在NOx的NH_3-SCR反应中Cu-SAPO-34催化剂存在低温动力学限制.因此开发一种具有丰富介孔的多级孔Cu-SAPO-34催化剂势在必行.我们利用一步水热晶化法成功制备了一系列具有丰富介孔的Cu-SAPO-34催化剂.采用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、透射电子显微镜(TEM)、氮气吸附-脱附、X射线衍射(XRD)、~(27)Al核磁共振(Al-NMR)、紫外可见漫反射光谱(UV-Vis DRS)、电感耦合等离子体-原子发射光谱(ICP-AES)、X射线光电子能谱(XPS)、氢气程序升温还原(H2-TPR)和电子顺磁共振(EPR)等表征手段研究了Cu-SAPO-34多级孔催化剂的物理化学性质.XRD测试结果证实,H-Cu-SAPO-34催化剂具有典型的CHA结构.TEM和N2吸附-脱附测试结果表明,H-Cu-SAPO-34催化剂具有丰富的介孔结构.Al-NMR测试结果表明,多种配位的Al物种存在于H-Cu-SAPO-34中.UV-Vis DRS测试结果证实了孤立Cu~(2+)和高分散的CuO的存在,没有观察到(Cu-O-Cu)2+和CuAl2O4物种的存在.ICP-AES和XPS测试结果表明,H-Cu-SAPO-34催化剂具有相似的Cu含量,并且H-Cu-SAPO-34-20催化剂具有最高的Cu~(2+)含量.H2-TPR测试结果表明,H-Cu-SAPO-34-20催化剂具有最低的孤立Cu~(2+)还原温度以及最高的孤立Cu~(2+)含量.这可能有利于其NH3-SCR活性提高.同时H2-TPR还表明,H-Cu-SAPO-34催化剂中存在含量不等的孤立Cu+,并且孤立Cu~(2+)是NH3-SCR反应的主要活性中心.EPR测试结果进一步表明,位于SAPO-34椭球腔内(Site(I))的孤立Cu~(2+)是该反应的主要活性位.由NO的NH3-SCR反应测试结果来看,相比于普通的Cu/SAPO-34催化剂,具有丰富介孔结构的H-Cu-SAPO-34催化剂呈现出更高的低温催化活性,同时H-Cu-SAPO-34-20催化剂具有最高的低温NH3-SCR催化活性,这与其较高的活性Cu~(2+)含量以及较低的孤立Cu~(2+)还原温度密切相关.动力学测试结果表明,所合成的H-Cu-SAPO-34多级孔催化剂具有相似的活化能(Ea=98 kJ/mol),并且该值远大于普通CHA基SCR催化剂,这意味着介孔的存在确实大大降低了反应物分子在H-Cu-SAPO-34孔道内的扩散阻力,提高了反应物分子与活性位的接触概率,从而提高了其低温NH3-SCR催化性能.