Imaging and quantifying transverse flow velocity with the Doppler bandwidth in a phase-resolved functional optical coherence tomography

The Doppler bandwidth extracted from the standard deviation of the frequency shift in phase-resolved functional optical coherence tomography (F-OCT) was used to image the velocity component that is transverse to the optical probing beam. It was found that above a certain threshold level the Doppler bandwidth is a linear function of flow velocity and that the effective numerical aperture of the optical objective in the sample arm determines the slope of this dependence. The Doppler bandwidth permits accurate measurement of flow velocity without the need for precise determination of flow direction when the Doppler flow angle is within +/-15 degrees perpendicular to the probing beam. Such an approach extends the dynamic range of flow velocity measurements obtained with the phase-resolved F-OCT.     

Simultaneous measurement of flow velocity and Doppler angle by the use of Doppler optical coherence tomography

Monitoring blood flow velocity could have great value for biomedical research and clinical diagnostics. One of current restrictions to determine flow velocity by the use of Doppler optical coherence tomography (Doppler OCT) is that the Doppler angle should be predefined. However, from a practical point of view, it is not easy to predetermine Doppler angle for a flow beneath the tissue surface. In this work, a novel method for measuring both flow velocity and Doppler angle simultaneously by the use of Doppler OCT is proposed and demonstrated. Based on Doppler spectrum analysis, this technique measures both longitudinal and transverse components of flow velocity by detecting its Doppler shift and Doppler bandwidth to determine velocity and Doppler angle simultaneously. Such a technique extends flow velocity measurement into a broadening practical use of Doppler OCT where Doppler angle would not need to be predefined, for example, blood flow beneath the tissue surface. Therefore, with this technique, Doppler OCT could be applied to more practical diagnoses of microcirculation.     

In vivo bidirectional color Doppler flow imaging of picoliter blood volumes using optical coherence tomography

We describe a novel optical system for bidirectional color Doppler imaging of flow in biological tissues with micrometer-scale resolution and demonstrate its use for in vivo imaging of blood flow in an animal model. Our technique, color Doppler optical coherence tomography (CDOCT), performs spatially localized optical Doppler velocimetry by use of scanning low-coherence interferometry. CDOCT is an extension of optical coherence tomography (OCT), employing coherent signal-acquisition electronics and joint time-frequency analysis algorithms to perform flow imaging simultaneous with conventional OCT imaging. Cross-sectional maps of blood flow velocity with <50-microm spatial resolution and <0.6-mm/s velocity precision were obtained through intact skin in living hamster subdermal tissue. This technology has several potential medical applications.     

The flow velocity distribution from the doppler information on a plane in three-dimensional flow

In order to observe and estimate the flow of fluid in three-dimensional space, the pulsed Doppler method has been used widely. However, the velocity information acquired is only the velocity component in the beam direction of the wave even if an observation plane is formed by beam scanning. Accordingly, it is difficult to know the velocity distribution in the observation plane in tree-dimensional flow. In this paper, the new idea for processing the velocity distribution in the beam direction on an observation plane for transposing to flux distribution (flow function method) has been introduced. Further, the flow in an observation domain is divided into two kinds of flows, viz., the base flow which indicates the directivity of the flow in the observation domain and the vortex which is considered a two-dimensional flow. By applying the theory of a stream function to the two-dimensional flow, and by using the physical feature of a streamline to the base flow, the velocity component v which intersects perpendicularly to the beam direction is estimated. The flow velocity distribution in a scanning plane (observation plane) can be known from these two components of velocity, viz., beam direction componentu and perpendicular component to the beam directionv. The principle was explained by an example of the blood flow measurement in normal and abnormal heart chamber, by the ultrasonic Doppler method.     

Intraluminal fiber-optic Doppler imaging catheter for structural and functional optical coherence tomography

We describe a miniature fiber-optic Doppler imaging catheter for integrated functional and structural optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging. The Doppler catheter can map blood flow within a vessel as well as image vessel wall structures. A prototype Doppler catheter has been developed and demonstrated for measuring the intraluminal velocity profile in a vessel phantom (conduit). A simple mathematical model is demonstrated to estimate the total flow rate. This estimation technique also enables the spatial range of flow measurements to be extended by approximately two times the normal OCT image-penetration depth. The Doppler OCT catheter could be a powerful device for cardiovascular imaging.     

Doppler-based lateral motion tracking for optical coherence tomography

Nonuniform lateral scanning of the probe beam in optical coherence tomography produces imaging artifacts and leads to a morphologically inaccurate representation of the sample. Here, we demonstrate a solution to this problem, which is based on the Doppler shift carried by the complex-valued depth-resolved scattering amplitude. Furthermore, we demonstrate the feasibility of Doppler flow velocity measurements in underlying flow channels while laterally scanning the imaging probe over large surfaces with arbitrary and varying velocity. Finally, we performed centimeters-long hand-held B-mode imaging of skin in vivo.     

光学相干层析多普勒成像功能拓展研究

光学多普勒成像(Optical Doppler tomography,ODT)是一种结合了光学相干层析成像技术(Opticalcoherence tomography,OCT)和多普勒流速仪的非侵入、非接触的成像技术,能够实现对高散介质组织内部的血管分布和血液流速的探测。阐述了基于数字希尔伯特变换的相位分离多普勒光学相干层析成像技术的工作原理,并且通过对玻璃毛细管和生物芯片微通道管中聚苯乙烯溶液流速的实验测量,准确测量管内微粒缓慢移动时的多普勒频移量,获得了玻璃管内和生物芯片微通道管中流速分布曲线,证实了所提方法的可行性。获取的多普勒图像具有较高的空间分辨力和速度分辨力,在未来的临床应用中有潜在的应用价值。     

Phase-resolved optical coherence tomography and optical Doppler tomography for imaging blood flow in human skin with fast scanning speed and high velocity sensitivity

We have developed a novel phase-resolved optical coherence tomography (OCT) and optical Doppler tomography (ODT) system that uses phase information derived from a Hilbert transformation to image blood flow in human skin with fast scanning speed and high velocity sensitivity. Using the phase change between sequential scans to construct flow-velocity imaging, this technique decouples spatial resolution and velocity sensitivity in flow images and increases imaging speed by more than 2 orders of magnitude without compromising spatial resolution or velocity sensitivity. The minimum flow velocity that can be detected with an axial-line scanning speed of 400 Hz and an average phase change over eight sequential scans is as low as 10 microm/s, while a spatial resolution of 10 microm is maintained. Using this technique, we present what are to our knowledge the first phase-resolved OCT/ODT images of blood flow in human skin.     

Phase-referenced Doppler optical coherence tomography in scattering media

We present a fiber-based, low-coherence interferometer that significantly reduces phase noise by incorporating a second, narrowband, continuous-wave light source as a phase reference. By incorporating this interferometer into a Doppler OCT system, we demonstrate significant velocity noise reduction in reflective and scattering samples using processing techniques amenable to real-time implementation. We also demonstrate 90% suppression of velocity noise in a flow phantom.     

Imaging of subcutaneous blood vessels and flow velocity profiles by optical coherence tomography

We have applied a compact low power rapid scanning Doppler Optical Coherence Tomography system to monitor multi-dimensional velocity profiles within the complex vessels and simultaneous real-time non-invasive imaging of skin tissues morphology in vivo, in the wavelength range of 1.3–1.5 nm. Optical clearing of skin tissues has been utilized to achieve depth of OCT images up to 1.7 mm. Current approach enables applying low-power (0.4–0.5 mW) and low-noise broadband near-infrared light sources and obtaining OCT images with down to 12 μm spatial resolution. Two-dimensional time-domain OCT images of complex flow velocity profiles in blood vessel phantom and in vivo subcutaneous human skin tissues are presented. The effect of optical clearing on in vivo images is demonstrated and discussed.     

Interstitial Doppler optical coherence tomography

Doppler optical coherence tomography (OCT) can image tissue structure and blood flow at micrometer-scale resolution but has limited imaging depth. We report a novel, linear-scanning, needle-based Doppler OCT system using angle-polished gradient-index or ball-lensed fibers. A prototype system with a 19-guage (diameter of approximately 0.9 mm) echogenic needle is constructed and demonstrates in vivo imaging of bidirectional blood flow in rat leg and abdominal cavity. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of Doppler OCT through a needle probe in interstitial applications to visualize deeply situated microcirculation.     

The Doppler effect in NMR spectroscopy

An NMR sample may be subject to motions, such as those due to sample spinning or to liquid flow. Is the spectrum of such a sample affected by the Doppler effect? The question arises because, instrumental dimensions being much shorter than the wavelength, it is the near-field of the precessing magnetic moment which couples to the receiver coil, rather than the radiated far-field. We expand the near-field into plane propagating waves. For each such wave there is another one with the same amplitude, propagating in the opposite direction. The Doppler shifts are therefore equal and opposite. In the model case of a small fluid sample moving with constant velocity, this leads to a distribution of Doppler shifts which is symmetrical with respect to the unshifted frequency: there is no net spectral shift. We examine the possibility of observing the Doppler distribution in this case. We also consider the case of thermal motion of a gas. We draw attention to the resolved Doppler splitting of molecular rotational transitions in a supersonic burst as observed in a microwave resonator. We also mention briefly the Doppler effect in molecular beam spectroscopy.     

Low-coherence self-referencing velocimetry

Low-coherence self-referencing velocimetry optically measures the relative velocity between a point in a particle-laden fluid and a (potentially moving) reference surface. Low-coherence light scattered off the particles and off the reference surface is coupled into an interferometer with variable optical delay in one arm and an acousto-optical modulator in the second arm. The measurement location is set relative to the reference surface. Its location can be scanned along a line by adjusting the optical delay in the interferometer. The spatial resolution is typically tens of micrometers. Only one low-coherence light beam is required for each component of the velocity vector. Proof-of-principle measurements in Taylor-Couette flow are presented.     

Real-time flow imaging by removing texture pattern artifacts in spectral-domain optical Doppler tomography

We present a new, simple method to suppress texture pattern artifacts induced by the optical heterogeneity of tissues to improve the performance of flow imaging for real-time phase-resolved optical Doppler tomography. The method performs transverse scanning of the probe beam in the forward and then reverse directions, and it takes average of the spatial phase changes between them to obtain the final velocity image. It relies on the fact that the phase changes between successive axial scans due to the optical heterogeneity of the sample are time independent, while those due to the moving particles are time dependent. We experimentally demonstrate this method by real-time imaging of a flow phantom.     

Differential phase contrast in optical coherence tomography

We report on a modification of optical coherence tomography (OCT) that allows one to measure small phase differences between beams traversing adjacent areas of a specimen. The sample beam of a polarization-sensitive low-coherence interferometer is split by a Wollaston prism into two components that traverse the object along closely spaced paths. After reflection at the various sample surfaces, the beams are recombined at the Wollaston prism. Any phase difference encountered between the two beams is converted into a change of polarization state of the recombined beam. This change is measured, and the resulting signals are converted to differential phase-contrast OCT images. The first images obtained from simple test objects allowed us to determine path-difference gradients with a resolution of the order of 5 x 10(-5) .     

Ultrathin side-viewing needle probe for optical coherence tomography

We present the smallest reported side-viewing needle probe for optical coherence tomography (OCT). Design, fabrication, optical characterization, and initial application of a 30-gauge (outer diameter 0.31 mm) needle probe are demonstrated. Extreme miniaturization is achieved by using a simple all-fiber probe design incorporating an angle-polished and reflection-coated fiber-tip beam deflector. When inserted into biological tissue, aqueous interstitial fluids reduce the probe's inherent astigmatism ratio to 1.8, resulting in a working distance of 300 μm and a depth-of-field of 550 μm with beam diameters below 30 μm. The needle probe was interfaced with an 840 nm spectral-domain OCT system and the measured sensitivity was shown to be only 7 dB lower than that of a comparable galvo-scanning sample arm configuration. 3D OCT images of lamb lungs were acquired over a depth range of ~600 μm, showing individual alveoli and bronchioles.     

Flow spectra from spectral power density calculations for pulsed Doppler

Range gated pulsed Doppler can be used to make localized velocity measurements within a blood vessel. Both the transducer and the sample volume are of finite size, and this prohibits the measurement of velocity at a point. A spectral flow profile can be created by stepping a sufficiently small sample volume across the lumen of a vessel. However no such set of spectra will correspond directly to the true velocity profile. In this study we developed a systematic theoretical treatment which allows Doppler spectral power density (SPD) functions to be calculated under a very wide range of conditions. Simulated flow spectra were created from sets of these spectra. The model is based on the beam intensity weighted volume method and incorporates, through the idea of a spread function, Guidi's individual flow line spectrum. Our method can be applied for different spread functions; with beam profiles which are uniform, Gaussian or arbitrarily narrow (needle beam); with range gated sample volumes which can be maximal (CW-type) or minimal (PW-type); and for beams which intersect the flow tube axis, or are off centre. Under all conditions we find the spread function parameter k, equal to the ratio of the central Doppler shift to half the bandwidth, plays a key role. After formulating the model analytically, we sought simplifications to allow results to be obtained from simple, practical formulae. Spread and unspread SPD functions are in most cases given as single integrals which contain measurable physical parameters and can be easily evaluated numerically. Model results are presented for flow spectra of parabolic flow, illustrating the interplay between different factors in determining the appearance of spectral flow profiles.     

Quantification of a three-dimensional velocity vector using spectral-domain Doppler optical coherence tomography

Multiangle, fiber-based, spectral-domain Doppler optical coherence tomography with a phase-resolved algorithm is presented to measure three components of an arbitrary velocity vector. A beam divider that divides a probe beam to have five independent viewpoints and path length delays was designed. The divider was inserted into the sampling arm of a Doppler optical coherence tomography system between the collimator and the first galvo mirror of a two-axis galvo scanner. The divider produced five independent D k's (the average difference between the wave vectors of incoming and outgoing beams) after passing through the focusing lens while keeping two-axis scanning capability. After calibration, an unknown velocity vector field inside a microtube was quantified by solving a three-dimensional minimization problem.     

光学相干层析成像系统的蒙特卡罗模拟

将光学相干层析成像系统采样臂的光纤与聚焦系统和被测样品作为一个整体来模拟光学相干层析成像信号的形成机理.通过追迹采样光束中每一光子在聚焦系统和被测样品中的随机传输轨迹,来决定该光子对光学相干层析成像信号是否有贡献及贡献大小.对样品IntralipidTM的模拟结果与实验结果表明：1）高散射系数和弱前向散射是引起光学相干层析成像信号随测量深度增加迅速减弱的主要原因;2）对于确定的聚焦系统,光纤的数值孔径有一最佳取值范围.数值孔径太小,则光学相干层析成像信号很弱;数值孔径超出这一范围继续增大,光学相干层析成像信号变化很小.3）当光纤的光轴偏离聚焦系统的光轴h距离时,光学相干层析成像信号随h的增加而减弱.     

Measurement and direct regulation of the velocity of a fast beam using doppler-tuned laser photon-atom interactions

An optical method is described that uses the Doppler shift to measure the velocity of a fast particle beam merged with a photon beam from a laser. The Doppler-tuned resonance signal is used in a feedback loop to regulate directly the velocity of the beam. The method is demonstrated using a beam of ⁴He atoms pumped by CO₂ laser photons into high Rydberg pure quantum states. Applications to other areas of fast beam physical research are discussed.