Complex Formation of Crown Ethers and Cryptands with Alkali Metal and Ammonium Ions in Chloroform

The complex formation between different crown ethers and the cryptand [222] with alkali metal and ammonium ions in chloroform has been investigated by means of calorimetric titrations. The stability constants, reaction enthalpies and entropies for complex formation in chloroform have been determined. The complexation of alkali metal ions is favored by enthalpic contributions and influenced by both the ligand and the nature of the cation. The reaction enthalpies for complex formation of different ammonium salts with cryptand [222] are higher compared to the corresponding values for the reaction with different 18-crown-6 derivatives in chloroform due to the complete encapsulation of ammonium ion by the cryptand [222]. The benzo group attached to the crown ethers and the nature of the anion borne by the ammonium ion influence complex formation of ammonium with crown ethers. In the case of ammonium salts, competitive measurements have been carried out to underline the influence of the anion upon the complex formation. From the reaction enthalpies for complexation of ammonium ions, the contributions for the formation of hydrogen bonds are calculated using experimental data. Taken in part from the Ph.D. thesis of R.-C. Mutihac, University Duisburg-Essen, 2007.     

碱金属阳离子对铁卟啉电催化CO2还原的影响

电催化CO2还原反应(CO2RR)可以有效地将温室气体转化为燃料或高附加值的化学品,从而缓解目前人类所面临的环境问题和能源危机,其中开发高效的电催化剂是至关重要的环节.近年来,研究者设计了多种高效的过渡金属配合物(包括Mn,Fe,Co,Ni和Cu)用作CO2RR分子电催化剂,并研究了其中的构效关系,例如,在分子内修饰质子给体取代基或电荷取代基可以显著提高CO2RR的催化效率.而电催化CO2RR的实际应用要在含有碱金属阳离子(例如,Na+和K+)的电解质水溶液中进行,但在已有报道中,很少有关于碱金属阳离子对CO2RR的影响.在众多的分子催化剂中,铁卟啉可以以较高的催化活性和选择性实现CO2到CO的转化.重要的是,卟啉环的刚性结构、稳定的配位环境及其骨架上官能团的易于修饰性成为研究CO2RR的构效关系的理想分子模型.基于以上考虑,本文以铁卟啉配合物为分子模型,研究了碱金属阳离子Na+和K+对电催化CO2RR的影响.首先,本文合成了简单的A4型铁卟啉化合物四-(3,4,5-三甲氧基苯基)-铁卟啉(FeP).并采用核磁共振、质谱分析、单晶衍射等表征手段对化合物进行了表征,在含有电解质的DMF溶液中测试其电催化CO2还原性能.实验结果表明,FeP可以实现高效的电催化CO2还原,催化电流随FeP的浓度呈线性增加,说明催化反应速率与催化剂浓度呈一级反应速率关系.较长时间的恒电压电解实验以及电解前后化合物的紫外-可见光谱证实了FeP的稳定性.通过气相色谱对产物进行分析,CO为主要产物,法拉第效率为95％.以上结果均表明,FeP是一个优良的分子催化剂.在此基础上,本文还发现加入Na+和K+均可以显著提升催化活性,而K+的加入使催化电流的提升更加显著,这可能是由于K+在溶液中的迁移速度比Na+更快.基于此实验现象,本文通过在FeP的第二配位层修饰1-氨-18-冠-6-醚官能团(N18C6),合成了N18C6-FeP化合物.结果表明,由于N18C6与Na+/K+之间的配位作用,使得N18C6-FeP比FeP具有更好的电催化CO2RR活性.研究表明,催化活性的提升归因于碱金属阳离子能够通过静电相互作用稳定Fe-CO2中间体.1H NMR谱证实了N18C6基团的确能够螯合碱金属阳离子.本文研究证明了碱金属阳离子对改善电催化CO2RR的积极作用,对于进一步深入了解CO2RR催化反应机理和未来合理的设计高效催化剂也都具有重要意义.     

Gas-Phase studies of valinomycin-alkali metal cation complexes: attachment rates and cation affinities

Reactions of laser-desorbed Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺, and Cs⁺ with thermally vaporized valinomycin generate metal-ligand complexes in a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance trapping cell, proving that complexes can form via gas-phase ion-molecule reactions. Although desorption of intact pre-formed complexes cannot be ruled out, this route appears minor. Relative rate constants for the complexation reactions show strong dependence on the charge densities of the cations. Competition experiments between valinomycin and the synthetic ionophores 18-crown-6 (18C6) and [2.2.2]-cryptand ([2.2.2]) show that valinomycin has a higher intrinsic alkali metal cation affinity than either 18C6 or [2.2.2], in contrast to the complex formation constants observed in methanol, where K+ affinities are in the order [2.2.2] > 18C6 > valinomycin.     

Stability constants and thermodynamic data for complexes of 12-crown-4 with alkali metal and alkaline-earth cations in methanol solutions

The formation of 1:1- and 2:1-complexes of the crown ether 12C4 with mono- and bivalent cations was studied in methanol solutions by calorimetric, potentiometric and conductometric titrations. It is shown that not all donor atoms of the ligand 12C4 take part in complex formation. The accuracy of the three experimental methods are checked by comparing the results for the complexation of alkali ions with crown ether 18C6.     

Zu Fragen der Ionen- und Lösungsmittelüberführung bei der Elektrolyse in Alkalimetallchlorid–Methanol–Wasser-Systemen

In order to get informations about the selective solvation in mixed solvents, transference measurements at solutions of LiCl, NaCl, KCl, RbCl and CsCl in methanol–water-mixtures at 25°C has been carried out. The Hittorf transference numbers give informations about the influence of the solvent composition on the size of the solvation shell and on association phenomena. Neglecting the anion influence, a preferential solvation of cations by water results.     

Mechanisms of the action of alkali metal admixtures on the properties of copper–zinc–aluminum water–gas shift catalysts

The effect of alkali metal (Cs, Na) admixtures on the catalytic and physicochemical properties of coprecipitated Cu–Zn–Al catalysts for the low-temperature water–gas shift reaction has been investigated. The inhibition of the formation of methanol, an undesired by-product, by alkali metals is accompanied by a decrease in the activity of the catalyst in the main, water–gas shift reaction ion. The alkali metals exert an adverse effect on the thermal stability of the catalyst. Experimental data are explained in a consistent way on the basis of the following conceptions of the mechanism of the action of alkali metals: (1) the alkali metals stimulate sintering of the crystal structure of the main components of the catalyst, diminishing the activity of the catalyst in the water–gas shift reaction and in methanol formation; (2) the alkali metals directly or indirectly accelerate methanol conversion into other chemical products.     

Evidence for [18-Crown-6 Na]2[S2O4] in methanol and dissociation to Na2S2O4 and 18-Crown-6 in the solid state; accounting for the scarcity of simple oxy dianion salts of alkali metal crown ethers in the solid state

[18-Crown-6 Na](2)S(2)O(4) complex was prepared in methanol solution but dissociates into 18-Crown-6 ((s)) and Na(2)S(2)O(4 (s)) on removal of the solvent. Evidence for complexation in methanol is supported by a quantitative mass analysis and the dissociation in the solid state by vibrational spectroscopy and powder X-ray diffraction. These observations are accounted for by investigating the energetics of complexation in solution and dissociation in the solid state using calculated density functional theory (DFT) gas phase binding enthalpies and free energies combined with conductor-like screening model (COSMO) solvation energies and lattice enthalpy and free energy terms derived from volume based thermodynamics (VBT). Our calculations show that complexation of alkali metal dianion salts to crown ethers are much less favorable than that of the corresponding monoanion salts in the solid state and that the formation of alkali metal crown complexes of stable simple oxy-dianion (e.g., CO(3)(2-), SO(4)(2-)) salts is unlikely. The roles of complexation with 18-Crown-6 and ion pair formation in the process of dissolution of Na(2)S(2)O(4) to methanol are discussed.     

ACE applied to the quantitative characterization of benzo‐18‐crown‐6‐ether binding with alkali metal ions in a methanol–water solvent system

ACE was applied to the quantitative evaluation of noncovalent binding interactions between benzo‐18‐crown‐6‐ether (B18C6) and several alkali metal ions, Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Rb⁺ and Cs⁺, in a mixed binary solvent system, methanol–water (50/50 v/v). The apparent binding (stability) constants (K_b) of B18C6–alkali metal ion complexes in the hydro‐organic medium above were determined from the dependence of the effective electrophoretic mobility of B18C6 on the concentration of alkali metal ions in the BGE using a nonlinear regression analysis. Before regression analysis, the mobilities measured by ACE at ambient temperature and variable ionic strength of the BGE were corrected by a new procedure to the reference temperature, 25°C, and the constant ionic strength, 10 mM . In the 50% v/v methanol–water solvent system, like in pure methanol, B18C6 formed the strongest complex with potassium ion (log K_b=2.89±0.17), the weakest complex with cesium ion (log K_b=2.04±0.20), and no complexation was observed between B18C6 and the lithium ion. In the mixed methanol–water solvent system, the binding constants of the complexes above were found to be about two orders lower than in methanol and about one order higher than in water.     

Photometric reagents for alkali metal ions, based on crown-ether complex formation--III. 4'-picrylaminobenzo-15-crown-5 derivatives

An extraction study of alkali metal cations has been made with crown-ether reagents, 4'-picrylaminobenzo-15-crown-5 derivatives (HL). On dissociation in alkaline medium, the orange HL gives the blood-red anion L(-) and extracts alkali metal ions into chloroform as coloured complexes of composition ML.HL or ML. The ease of extraction decreases in the order, K(+) > Rb(+) > Cs(+) > Na(+) > Li(+). The extracted complexes are ML.HL for K(+) and Rb(+), and both ML.HL and ML for Na(+). The Li(+) complex is not extracted. The photometric determination of 10-800 ppm of K(+) is possible in the presence of other alkali and alkaline earth metal ions.     

Thermodynamics of formation for the 18-crown-6-triglycine molecular complex in water-dimethylsulfoxide solvents

The effect of a water-dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) solvent on the formation of a molecular complex of 18-crown-6 (18C6) with triglycine (diglycylglycine, 3Gly) is studied via calorimetric titration. It is found that switching from water to an H₂O-DMSO mixture with DMSO mole fraction of 0.30 is accompanied by a monotonic increase in the stability of [3Gly18C6] complex, from logK ^° = 1.10 to logK ^° = 2.44, and an increase in the exothermicity of the reaction of its formation, from ?5.9 to ?16.9 kJ/mol. It is shown that the [3Gly18C6] complex exhibits enthalpy stabilization with negative values of enthalpy and entropy over the investigated range of H₂O-DMSO solvents. Analysis of the reagents’ solvation characteristics reveals that the increase in the reaction’s exothermicity of transfer is due to differences in the solvation of [3Gly18C6] and 18C6 with a small solvation contribution from 3Gly. It is concluded that the change in the Gibbs energy of the reaction 3Gly_solv + 18C6_solv ? [3Gly18C6]_solv is due to differences in the change in the solvation state of the complex and the peptide (Δ_tr G ^°([3Gly18C6])-Δ_tr G ^°(3Gly)).     

The synthesis and coordination properties of new macrocyclic polyethers

A new type of macrocyclic polyethers has been synthesized. It consists of an azacrown ether as mother ring, e.g. 1,7-dioxa-4,10-diaza-cyclododecane (1a) or 1,7,10,16-tetraoxa-4,13-diazacycloocatadecane (1b), and two side chains attached on the two nitrogen atoms of 1a or 1b. A number of these new crown ethers are obtained by alkylation of the two secondary amino groups of 1a or 1b with corresponding halides, BrCH₂(CH₂OCH₂)_nCH₂OR, in the presence of potassium carbonate. The crown-alkali metal complex thus obtained is hydrolyzed by acid. In order to obtain pure crown ether the reaction mixture is treated with tetramethylammonium hydroxide and followed by solvent extraction. The ability of complexing alkali cations of macrocyclic polyethers in terms of the equilibrium constant have been studied by the method of solubilities of salts in chloroform. It is shown that the size of the mother ring, the number of oxygen atoms either in the ring or in the side-chains, and the ionic radius of the alkali metal are the factors governing the stability of the metal complexes. Most of these new crown ethers possess high ability for alkali metal complexation some of them, such as N,N′- di-β-methoxyethyl-1,7-dioxa-4,10-diaza-cyclododecanc (13a), possesses higher selectivity for Na+ and K+ ions than 18-crown-6- and 4,4′(5′)-dimethylbenz-30-crown-10.     

The influence of acetonitrile on complex formation of crown ethers containing different donor atoms

The complexation reactions of crown ethers with monovalent cations and Ba²⁺ were studied in acetonitrile solutions by means of calorimetric and potentiometric titration. The reaction enthalpies measured clearly demonstrate the influence of the interactions between 18-crown-6 and the acetonitrile solvent molecules. Changing the donor atoms or other substituents on the ligand molecule can exert a strong influence on the interactions with the solvent. Thus, all the reaction enthalpies measured for the reaction of 15-crown-5 with different cations are higher compared with 18-crown-6. On comparison with results in methanol, an approximate estimation is made of the influence of solvent molecules on the reaction enthalpies measured in acetonitrile. Due to the strong interaction between silver ion and acetonitrile, complex formation is only observed with crown ethers containing additional nitrogen or sulphur donor atoms.     

The Stability of Divalent 3d- and Trivalent 4f-Metal Complexes with Diazapolyoxa Macrocyclic Ligands

The complex formation of some divalent 3d- and trivalent 4f-metal ions with four macrocyclic ligands has been investigated in methanol/water 95:5 by use of alkalimetric titrations. In contrast to alkali and alkaline-earth cations the obtained stability constants are quite low. The reasons of this effect are discussed.     

The Role of Triazole and Glucose Moieties in Alkali Metal Cation Complexation by Lower-Rim Tertiary-Amide Calix[4]arene Derivatives

The binding of alkali metal cations with two tertiary-amide lower-rim calix[4]arenes was studied in methanol, N,N-dimethylformamide, and acetonitrile in order to explore the role of triazole and glucose functionalities in the coordination reactions. The standard thermodynamic complexation parameters were determined microcalorimetrically and spectrophotometrically. On the basis of receptor dissolution enthalpies and the literature data, the enthalpies for transfer of reactants and products between the solvents were calculated. The solvent inclusion within a calixarene hydrophobic basket was explored by means of ¹H NMR spectroscopy. Classical molecular dynamics of the calixarene ligands and their complexes were carried out as well. The affinity of receptors for cations in methanol and N,N-dimethylformamide was quite similar, irrespective of whether they contained glucose subunits or not. This indicated that sugar moieties did not participate or influence the cation binding. All studied reactions were enthalpically controlled. The peak affinity of receptors for sodium cation was noticed in all complexation media. The complex stabilities were the highest in acetonitrile, followed by methanol and N,N-dimethylformamide. The solubilities of receptors were greatly affected by the presence of sugar subunits. The medium effect on the affinities of calixarene derivatives towards cations was thoroughly discussed regarding the structural properties and solvation abilities of the investigated solvents.     

Interaction of Halogenoantimonates with Aromatic Compounds in organic solvents

The interaction of SbCl_nBr_6-n^? (n = 1—6) with various bπ-donors has been investigated by means of UV spectroscopy, conductometry, and polarography. The influence of the bπ-donor structure, of the corresponding cation, the ligands of the antimonates, and the solvent on the behaviour of complex formation is discussed. With increasing ionization potential of the bπ-donor the CT absorption shifts to higher energies. Derivatives of aminobenzene lead to the formation of radical cations. The influence of 18-crown-6 on the radical cation formation is also discussed. With increasing content of bromine in the antimonate the overall acceptor strength increases as well. The influence of the solvent on CT energy depends on both the specific solvation of the ground state of the electron donor-acceptor complex and the dielectric solvation of the excited state of the complex.     

Kinetic and theoretical studies on alkaline ethanolysis of 4-nitrophenyl salicylate: effect of alkali metal ions on reactivity and mechanism

Pseudo-first-order rate constants (k(obsd)) for reactions of 4-nitrophenyl salicylate (7) with alkali metal ethoxides (EtOM, M = K, Na, and Li) in anhydrous ethanol have been measured spectrophotometrically. Interestingly, the k(obsd) value decreases significantly as the concentration of EtOM increases. Because the phenolic moiety of substrate 7 would be deprotonated and exist as an anionic form (i.e., 7(-)) under kinetic conditions, the ground-state stabilization of 7(-) through formation of a six-membered cyclic complex with M(+) (i.e., 8) is proposed to be responsible for the decreasing k(obsd) trend. The k(obsd) value at a given concentration of EtOK increases steeply upon addition of [18]crown-6 ether (18C6) up to [18C6]/[EtOK] = 1 in the reaction mixture and then remains relatively constant thereafter. In contrast, k(obsd) decreases upon addition of salts (e.g., LiClO(4) or KSCN) to the reaction mixture, which indicates that M(+) ions inhibit the reaction. However, in the presence of 18C6, the k(obsd) value is independent of the concentration of EtOK but remains constant, which indicates that the reaction proceeds through a unimolecular mechanism in the presence of the complexing agent. Although two conceivable unimolecular pathways (formation of ketene 9 and lactone 10) can account for the kinetic results, the reaction has been concluded to proceed via formation of ketene 9 as the reactive intermediate on the basis of theoretical calculations.     

Influence of reagents solvation on [Ag18C6]+ complex formation in methanol‒acetonitrile mixed solvents

Russian Journal of General Chemistry - The influence of the composition of the methanol—acetonitrile (MeOH—AN) solvent on the solvation of 18-crown-6 ether (18C6) has been studied....     

Synthesis and Properties of 5-Chloro-8-hydroxyquinoline-Substituted Azacrown Ethers: A New Family of Highly Metal Ion-Selective Lariat Ethers

New 5-chloro-8-hydroxyquinoline (CHQ)-substituted aza-18-crown-6 (4), diaza-18-crown-6 (1), diaza-21-crown-7 (2), and diaza-24-crown-8 (3) ligands, where CHQ was attached through the 7-position, and aza-18-crown-6 (11) and diaza-18-crown-6 (10) macrocycles, where CHQ was attached through the 2-position, were prepared. Thermodynamic quantities for complexation of these CHQ-substituted macrocycles with alkali, alkaline earth, and transition metal ions were determined in absolute methanol at 25.0 degrees C by calorimetric titration. Two isomers, 1 and 10, which are different only in the attachment positions of the CHQ to the parent macroring, exhibit remarkable differences in their affinities toward the metal ions. Compound 1 forms very stable complexes with Mg(2+), Ca(2+), Cu(2+), and Ni(2+) (log K = 6.82, 5.31, 10.1, and 11.4, respectively), but not with the alkali metal ions. Ligand 10 displays strong complexation with K(+) and Ba(2+) (log K = 6.61 and 12.2, respectively) but not with Mg(2+) or Cu(2+). The new macrocycles and their complexes have been characterized by means of UV-visible and (1)H NMR spectra and X-ray crystallography. New peaks in the UV spectrum of the Mg(2+)-1 complex could allow an analytical determination of Mg(2+) in very dilute solutions in the presence of other alkali and alkaline earth metal cations. (1)H NMR spectral and X-ray crystallographic studies indicate that ligand 10 forms a cryptate-like structure when coordinated with K(+) and Ba(2+), which induces an efficient overlap of the two hydroxyquinoline rings. Such overlapping forms a pseudo second macroring that results in a significant increase in both complex stability and cation selectivity.     

Heavier alkali metal complexes of 2-phenylamidopyridine: an X-ray crystallographic and theoretical study of a structurally diverse series of crown ether adducts

Complexes of the anion of the secondary amine 2-phenylaminopyridine (LH) with the heavier alkali metals Na-Cs have been prepared in the presence of various macrocyclic polyether crowns [12-crown-4 (12C4), 15-crown-5 (15C5), and 18-crown-6 (18C6)], which coordinate to the metal ions in all cases. Depending on the combination of alkali metal and crown, the products include separated ion pairs [(crown)(2)M](+)L(-)(12C4/Na, 15C5/K, 15C5/Rb, 15C5/Cs) and contact-ion-pair neutral molecules [(crown)ML](15C5/Na, 18C6/Na, 18C6/K, 18C6/Rb) in which L(-) acts as a bidentate ligand. [((12C4)KL)(2)] is a dimer in which the amido and pyridine N atoms of two ligands bridge the metal ions, while [((18C6)KL(2)K)([infinity])] is a chain polymer with crown O and pyridyl N atoms acting as bridges in corner-sharing KOKN four-membered rings and may be regarded as a potassium potassate complex. [((18C6)Cs(2)L(2))([infinity])] is also polymeric, with a basic arrangement like that of [((12C4)KL)(2)], but with each 18C6 ligand mu-kappa6:kappa6 to two metal centres, generating the polymer. Although most of the [(crown)(2)M](+) sandwich cations have essentially parallel crown ligands, [(12C4)(2)Rb](+) is markedly bent, both in the complex incorporating THF as an additional ligand and in the THF-free complex, where two of these cations form a centrosymmetric dimer through two bridging oxygen atoms; DFT calculations indicate that the bending is inherent, thus enabling the coordination by an extra oxygen atom rather than being a consequence of this coordination. Attempts to isolate the caesium 12C4 derivative were unsuccessful. The compounds have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy, CHN microanalysis and, in most cases, X-ray crystallography.