Measurement of soft X-ray radiation using the PF-4 plasma focus setup with semiconductor X-ray detectors

Soft X-rays were measured with time resolution at angles of 45° and 90° to the system axis in an argon atmosphere using SPPD 11-04 fast semiconductor detectors. The dependence of the X-ray yield was studied as a function of the voltage of a capacitor bank of the plasma focus in a range from 8 to 14 kV and argon pressures from 0.5 to 4 Torr. Generalization of the results obtained allowed possible interpretation of the nature of observed emission.     

Collimated soft X-rays from the plasma focus

Highly anisotropic soft X-ray emission with a quantum energy of approximately 1 keV has been observed at a plasma focus device. Typical beam divergence is 50 mrad as confirmed by different experimental methods.     

Foam target experiments with the PF-1000 plasma focus facility

This paper describes experiments on foam liners performed with the PF-1000 plasma focus facility. A streak camera has been used to observe interaction of a hydrogen plasma current sheath with a cylindrical foam target. It is shown that a thin foam liner can be uniformly imploded by a plasma focus current sheath. Received: 11 February 1999 / Received in final form: 30 March 1999     

Influence of Kr doping on neon soft X-rays emission in fast miniature plasma focus device

An investigation on the possibility of enhancement of soft X-ray (SXR) (900–1600 eV) emission from a fast miniature plasma focus (FMPF) device of 235 J (at 14 kV) storage energy through doping of operating gas was performed. Neon (Ne), the operating gaseous medium, was doped with krypton (Kr) in different volumetric ratios at various operating pressures ranging from 2 to 14 mbar. The 1% Kr doping increased the average optimum SXR emission efficiency from 0.47% to 0.6% without enhancing the hard X-ray (HXR) (>1600 eV) emission. The Kr doping influenced the major pinching characteristics such as focusing efficiency and time to pinch with consequential effect on X-ray emissions. Synchronous operation of the 4 pseudo-spark gap (PSG) switches was mandatory for efficient discharge current delivery to the electrodes. A drastic improvement in the pinching efficiency was obtained with replacement of old and worn out PSG switches with the new ones. Optical imaging of current sheath dynamics was performed using gated ICCD camera to verify the normal operation of the device after the PSGs replacement. A numerical simulation analysis on the 2 cm long stainless steel tapered anode, used in this study, was done to predict the maximum SXR emission efficiency and the peak operating gas pressure. An analysis on the amount of SXR fluence generated at the source position and the proportion of it reaching the target position is also reported.     

Optimization of neon soft X-rays emission from 200 J fast miniature dense plasma focus device: A potential source for soft X-ray lithography

The neon soft X-ray (SXR) emission characteristics of a Fast Miniature Plasma Focus (FMPF-3) device have been investigated. The FMPF-3 device used for our experiment is of sub-kilojoule energy capacity, which is an order of magnitude lesser than the other well established plasma focus devices. The influence of different geometrical parameters of the anode and the pressure of the filling gas on the SXR emission was investigated to optimize the neon SXR yield and thereby make it a potential source for X-ray lithography. The SXR signal, solely from the desired, characteristic spectral range (900–1600) eV was selectively extracted and acquired using appropriate X-ray absorption filters on diode X-ray spectrometer. It was found that the neon SXR emission from 17 mm long cylindrical anode, which produced best neutron yields, was rather poor, in a very narrow pressure range and that too at low operating pressure. With decrease in the length of cylindrical anode, the optimum operating pressure shifts to higher pressure side, the working pressure range widens and the SXR yield also increases until the anode length is reduced to 12 mm, after which, the SXR yield and working pressure range start to degrade. The highest neon SXR yield of 1.1 J/shot, corresponding to a wall plug efficiency of 0.57%, was obtained for 12 mm long cylindrical anode. The tapered anodes with different length were also designed and tested, but they did not show any significant improvement in neon SXR yield.     

Hydrogen transport in a niobium-foil assembly under the action of high-temperature hydrogen plasma on a plasma focus setup

The process of hydrogen transport under the action of hydrogen-plasma pulses in the Plasma Focus (PF-4) setup in an assembly of niobium foils with thicknesses of 110 μm each is studied. It is established that the implanted hydrogen is transported to large depths in the Nb foils under the action of the hydrogen plasma. These depths considerably exceed the paths of hydrogen ions from the plasma as the maximum ion velocities are on the order of 10⁸ cm/s. The highest concentration of hydrogen (up to 60 at %) is reached on the surface of the third Nb foil of the assembly. The discovered phenomenon can be explained by the action of shock waves of arising stresses upon the transport and redistribution of hydrogen to considerable depths.     

Energy spectrum of multi-radiation of X-rays in a low energy Mather-type plasma focus device

The multi-radiation of X-rays was investigated with special attention to their energy spectrum in a Mather-type plasma focus device （operated with argon gas）. The analysis is based on the effect of anomalous resistances. To study the energy spectrum, a four-channel diode X-ray spectrometer was used along with a special set of filters. The filters were suitable for detection of medium range X-rays as well as hard X-rays with energy exceeding 30 keV. The results indicate that the anomalous resistivity effect during the post pinch phase may cause multi-radiation of X-rays with a total duration of 300 ± 50 ns. The significant contribution of Cu-Kα was due to the medium range X-rays, nonetheless, hard X-rays with energies greater than 15 keV also participate in the process. The total emitted X-ray energy in the forms of Cu-K and Cu-K/3 was around 0.14 ± 0.02 （J/Sr） and 0.04 ±0.01 （J/Sr）, respectively. The total energy of the emitted hard X-ray （〉 15 keV） was around 0.12± 0.02 （J/Sr）.     

Scope of plasma focus with argon as a soft X-ray source

The X-radiation emission from a low energy plasma focus with argon as a filling gas is investigated. Specifically, the attention is paid to determine the system efficiency for argon K-lines and Cu-K/sub /spl alpha// line emission at different filling pressures, and identify the radiation emission region. The highest argon line emission found at 1.5 mbar is about 30 mJ and the corresponding efficiency is 0.0015%. The same pressure is suitable for high Cu-K/sub /spl alpha// emission, which is about 70 mJ in 4/spl pi/ geometry and the system efficiency is 0.003%. The bulk of X-radiation is emitted from the region close to the anode tip, whereas some radiation emission takes place from the formed hot spots along the focus axis. These radiations are found suitable for backlighting in Al (1-1.56 keV) and Ti (2.9-4.96 keV) energy transmission bands.     

Time resolved studies on X-rays and charged particles emission from a low energy plasma focus device

The time resolved studies on soft X-ray, hard X-ray, electron beam and ion beam emissions from a low energy plasma focus device are carried out simultaneously by employing a photodiode X-ray spectrometer, a scintillator photomultiplier tube, a combination of Faraday cup and Rogowski coil assembly and a biased Faraday cup, respectively. The soft X-ray is seen to be emitted in short multiple pulses corresponding to different pinch stages where as it is a single for hard X-ray, which corresponds to only maximum pinch stage. Similarly, multiple pulses of electron beam is found, which also corresponds to different pinch stages and these pulses are analogous with the soft X-ray pulses. The effective hard X-ray photon energy is estimated by foil absorption technique and found to be around 110 keV, which is consistent with the observed electron beam energy distribution. The simultaneous investigation of the electron and ion beam shows that both are accelerated by the same local field generated during the pinching process. The detailed results of time resolved studies on various radiations are incorporated in this Letter.     

Controlling the spectral shape of coherent soft X-rays

We demonstrate the generation of arbitrarily shaped spectra of coherent soft X-ray radiation by adaptive control of the driving laser pulse. The selection of both narrow and wide spectral ranges as well as suppression of high-harmonic emission in a selected wavelength region is achieved. Feedback-controlled spectral engineering of coherent soft X-rays paves the way to shaping of soft X-ray pulses and coherent control of electron dynamics in the sub-femtosecond regime.     

软X射线Mo/B_4C多层膜应力和热稳定性研究

为了实现7nm波段Mo/B4C多层膜反射镜元件的制备,研究了不同退火方式对Mo/B4C多层膜应力和热稳定性的影响。首先,采用直流磁控溅射方法分别基于石英和硅基板制作Mo/B4C多层膜样品,设计周期为3.58nm、周期数为60,Mo膜层厚度与周期的比值为0.4。其次,采用不同的退火方式对所制作的样品进行退火实验,最高退火温度500℃。最后,分别采用X射线掠入射反射、X射线散射和光学干涉仪的方法对退火前后的Mo/B4C多层膜的周期、界面粗糙度和应力进行测试。测试结果表明采用真空退火方式能够有效降低Mo/B4C多层膜的应力,且退火前后Mo/B4C多层膜的周期和界面粗糙度无明显变化,证明Mo/B4C多层膜在500℃以内具有很好的热稳定性。     

Measurement of the temporal and spectral characteristics of silicon p-i-n photodiodes in the soft x-ray range

A procedure is briefly described for investigating the temporal and spectral characteristics of a soft x-ray detector in the range of photon energies from a few tenths of an electron-volt to more than a thousand electron-volts. The measured characteristics (signal rise time, time resolution, and absolute responsivity) are given, along with parameters (thicknesses of the contact layer, dead layer, and sensitive layer) determined from the measurement results for certain commercial brands of fast silicon p-i-n photodiodes from various manufacturers (Siemens, Hamamatsu, Motorola, and NIIIT/Moscow), which can be used in x-ray plasma diagnostic apparatus with a time resolution of 1 ns or better. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 69, 83–88 (May 1999)     

软X射线Mo/B4C多层膜应力和热稳定性研究

为了实现7 nm波段Mo/B4C多层膜反射镜元件的制备,研究了不同退火方式对Mo/B4C多层膜应力和热稳定性的影响。首先,采用直流磁控溅射方法分别基于石英和硅基板制作Mo/B4C多层膜样品,设计周期为3.58 nm、周期数为60,Mo膜层厚度与周期的比值为0.4。其次,采用不同的退火方式对所制作的样品进行退火实验,最高退火温度500 ℃。最后,分别采用X射线掠入射反射、X射线散射和光学干涉仪的方法对退火前后的Mo/B4C多层膜的周期、界面粗糙度和应力进行测试。测试结果表明采用真空退火方式能够有效降低Mo/B4C多层膜的应力,且退火前后Mo/B4C多层膜的周期和界面粗糙度无明显变化,证明Mo/B4C多层膜在500 ℃以内具有很好的热稳定性。     

Lensless imaging of nanoporous glass with soft X-rays

Coherent soft X-ray diffraction has been used to image nanoporous glass structure in two dimensions using different methods. The merit of the reconstructions was judged using a new method of Fourier phase correlation with a final, refined image. The porous structure was found to have a much larger average size then previously believed.     

Filippov type plasma focus as intense source of hard X-rays(Ex≃50 keV)

This paper evaluates the use of a plasma focus machine (Filippov type) as a pulsed intense source of hard X-rays. It is shown experimentally that discharging a capacitor bank of W=50 kJ in the new arrangement of the discharge parameters, one can deliver into the test cavity (volume of 6*10³ cm³) an average of Φ _x=8*10^-4 J/cm². The delivered energy fluence varies in the range of 2*10^-4 J/cm²⩽Φ_x⩽2.9*10^-3 J/cm², depending on the probe position. The X-ray energy spectra were established by the differential absorption method using thermo-luminescent detectors (time-integrated spectra) or plastic scintillators (time-resolved spectra). The average energy of X-ray photons is 40 keVx^av<50 keV (20 keV⩽E _x⩽170 keV) and remains quasi-constant during the main part of the pulse (~40 ns). The electron energy that can produce such bremsstrahlung radiation is in the range of 95 keV⩽E_e⩽170 keV. However, time-resolved experiments reveal that at each instant of time only one energy of electron beam occurs. The aforementioned radiation characteristics reveal new potentials for the plasma-focus machine for a variety of applications. Some insight into the physics behind production mechanism of quasi-monoenergetic relativistic-electron beams will be concurrently reviewed     

Spectroscopic investigation of buried interfaces and liquids with soft X-rays

When, in general, two entities interact, they do it by forming an interface. The properties of such interfaces are determined not only by the properties of the two interface partners, but also to a large degree by the peculiarities of the interface-formation process itself. This is of particular importance in solid-state devices composed of two or more different materials. Unfortunately, the investigation of such interfaces is very difficult for two reasons. First they are, by their nature, buried. Secondly, interfaces generally form a thin layer within a larger ensemble and thus give very weak signals. Nevertheless, a few experimental techniques are available to study such buried interfaces. This report demonstrates that a combination of soft-X-ray spectroscopies (X-ray emission, photoemission, and X-ray absorption) is extremely well suited for this task. As examples, the electronic and chemical properties of several material systems are discussed, including II–VI semiconductors, Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)₂ thin-film solar cells, organic thin films, and liquids. PACS 82.80.Ej; 73.20.-r; 68.35.Fx     

金属超晶格薄膜对软X射线和远紫外光的反射效应

本文在流体动力学模型基础上,用转移矩阵方法讨论了TE波在金属超晶格薄膜上的反射行为,给出了ω>ω_p时反射率的解析表达式.并通过对AB型金属超晶格和ACBC型金属超晶格的数值计算,得到了关于软X射线反射光谱行为的许多有意义的结果.     

Bonding and dynamics of surface systems probed by soft X-rays

We review some aspects of the investigation of surface systems with soft X-rays. Examples are presented, showing how core level spectroscopies provide detailed information on the structure, bonding and chemistry of adsorbates and thin layers on surfaces. Core level spectroscopies employed at high brilliance synchrotron light sources allow furthermore access to electron dynamics in the attosecond domain, as we demonstrate for the core hole clock method.     

Microinstabilities in the plasma focus

Experimentally observed suprathermal microwave emission correlated to soft X-rays emitted with high anisotropy are indicating the existence of current driven microinstabilities in the plasma focus.     

Laser cavities and polarization optics for soft X-rays and the extreme ultraviolet

Addressed here are polarization optics for extreme-ultraviolet and soft X-ray wavelengths, especially as relevant to laser cavities. It is pointed out that the whisper-gallery mirrors studied by Vinogradov can serve as weak polarizers and, more importantly, as birefringent elements. The application of multilayer technology to polarizing mirrors and beamsplitters is also considered. It is shown that multilayer beamsplitters can function both as reflective and transmissive polarizers. Their behavior is surprising in some cases, with the same polarization being preferred in both reflection and transmission. Three polarizing cavity schemes are proposed, each incorporating a polarizing beamsplitter as its output coupler. Cavity optimization issues are discussed.