Fluctuations of noiselike signals reflected from a rough surface at the output of a correlation receiver

The frequency and time averaging of the fluctuations that occur in the cross-correlation function of a radiated noiselike acoustic signal with the signal received after its reflection from a rough water surface is considered. The variance and temporal correlation function are calculated for the output effect of a correlation receiver for different ratios between the averaging time and the time correlation interval of fluctuations, the band width of the radiated signal, and the frequency correlation interval of the transfer function fluctuations.     

Frequency averaging of fluctuations in the cross-correlation reception of noiselike signals reflected from a rough sea surface

For noiselike signals reflected from a rough sea surface and received by a correlation receiver, the effect achieved at the receiver output as a result of frequency averaging of signal fluctuations is considered. Expressions characterizing the effect of frequency averaging are derived by using the generalized two-scale model describing the frequency correlation of strong fluctuations of the transfer function. Results of numerical calculations for the variance of fluctuations at the output of the correlation receiver are presented for different relative values of the frequency bandwidth of noiselike signals and the frequency correlation scales for the cases of both weak and strong fluctuations.     

The Fundamentals of Particle Size Analysis by Transmission Fluctuation Spectrometry.

A transmission signal measured on a flowing suspension of particles with a high spatial and temporal resolution shows significant fluctuations, which contain the complete information on particle size distribution and particle concentration. In Parts 1 and 2, the basic properties of signal fluctuations were studied for temporal averaging by a gliding time window and for spatial averaging by a circular beam of uniform intensity. However, the experimental implementation of such conditions is difficult. Now, the theory is extended for Gaussian beams of variable diameter and averaging by signal filtering in the frequency domain. This provides the basis for an experimental implementation by transmission of a laser beam and analog signal processing by an array of low pass filters.     

An Experiment on Averaging in Extinction Measurements

The discrete nature of particles leads to fluctuations, in both space and time, of the radiation transmitted through a disperse system. The result of a transmission or extinction measurement is commonly expressed, however, as an average value and consecutively converted to a concentration measurement. The experiment discussed here shows that different concentration measures (volume concentration and surface concentration) can be obtained from the same measurement, depending on which level of the signal treatment the averaging procedure is introduced.     

Particle Size Analysis by Transmission Fluctuation Spectrometry: Experimental Results Obtained with a Gaussian Beam and Analog Signal Processing

Transmission fluctuation spectrometry (TFS) is a method for the analysis of particle size distributions based on the statistical fluctuations of a transmission signal. Complete information on the PSD and particle concentration can be retrieved by a special transformation of the transmission signal, whereby the expectancy of the transmission square (ETS) is determined after the signal has been subjected to a procedure of spatial and temporal averaging. By varying the averaging parameters over a wide range, a spectrum of ETSs is obtained and introduced into a linear equation system, which yields the PSD. In the experimental realization presented here, variable temporal averaging is realized in the frequency domain with a series of low pass filters at different cutoff frequencies while spatial averaging inevitably occurs as the particles pass through a focused Gaussian beam of finite cross section. Experimental results on spherical particles (glass beads) and non‐spherical particles (SiC) are presented. The PSDs are resolved in 30 intervals within a particle size range from 1–1000 μm, employing a modified Chahine inversion algorithm. So far, the measurements are limited to moderate particle concentrations. Some influences affecting the measurements, especially for higher particle concentrations, are discussed in detail.     

Compensation of Magnetic Field Instabilities in Field Cycling NMR by Reference Deconvolution

Performing a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiment in an unstable magnetic field causes fluctuations in the NMR frequency, leading to a loss of reproducibility and an effective shortening of the free induction decay after data averaging. Reference deconvolution allows the compensation of field fluctuations via simultaneous measurement of an internal or external reference signal. The technique was applied to compensate the effect of field fluctuations in a resistive electromagnet used for fast field cycling NMR. An external sample was chosen as the reference.     

The Fundamentals of Particle Size Analysis by Transmission Fluctuation Spectrometry. Part 1: A Theory of Temporal Transmission Fluctuations in Dilute Suspensions

The extinction of radiation in suspensions is traditionally described by the Bouger-Lambert-Beer law (BLBL). Based on a quasi-continuum approach, the BLBL does not account for the discrete nature of particles or their spatial extension and arrangement. If an extinction measurement is made with a high spatial and temporal resolution, the transmitted intensity signal shows significant fluctuations. The strength of fluctuation is related to the physical properties of the suspension and the process of spatial and temporal averaging. Exploiting this connection, it is possible to calculate the particle size distribution and the particle concentration from transmission measurements. This part of the series of papers provides a method for the temporal decomposition of the transmission's power spectrum, which permits the information on the particle size and concentration to be extracted from the seemingly irregular fluctuation of the transmission signal.     

Aperture averaging of optical scintillations: power fluctuations and the temporal spectrum

Using a recently developed theory of scintillation that is valid under all fluctuation conditions, including the focussing and saturation regimes, we develop general models for predicting power fluctuations (or aperture averaging) over finite-size collecting apertures. Inner-scale effects are introduced using a modified atmospheric spectrum for refractive-index fluctuations that includes a high-wavenumber bump. Where comparisons can be made, these models of aperture averaging are in good agreement with previous asymptotic models and experimental data. In addition to the aperture-averaging factor, we calculate the temporal spectrum associated with power fluctuations over various aperture sizes and conditions of turbulence. These later results clearly show the transfer of power distribution from high to low frequencies as the size of the collecting aperture is increased. The transfer of power is more pronounced in the saturation regime where high frequencies (fastest fluctuations) can be averaged out even for relatively small apertures.     

Comparison of α-chloralose,medetomidine and isoflurane anesthesia for functional connectivity mapping in the rat

Functional connectivity measures based upon low-frequency blood-oxygenation-level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging (BOLD fMRI) signal fluctuations have become a widely used tool for investigating spontaneous brain activity in humans. Still unknown, however, is the precise relationship between neural activity, the hemodynamic response and fluctuations in the MRI signal. Recent work from several groups had shown that correlated low-frequency fluctuations in the BOLD signal can be detected in the anesthetized rat — a first step toward elucidating this relationship. Building on this preliminary work, through this study, we demonstrate that functional connectivity observed in the rat depends strongly on the type of anesthesia used. Power spectra of spontaneous fluctuations and the cross-correlation-based connectivity maps from rats anesthetized with α-chloralose, medetomidine or isoflurane are presented using a high-temporal-resolution imaging sequence that ensures minimal contamination from physiological noise. The results show less localized correlation in rats anesthetized with isoflurane as compared with rats anesthetized with α-chloralose or medetomidine. These experiments highlight the utility of using different types of anesthesia to explore the fundamental physiological relationships of the BOLD signal and suggest that the mechanisms contributing to functional connectivity involve a complicated relationship between changes in neural activity, neurovascular coupling and vascular reactivity.     

非PLL相位平均型参考线原型验证

射频相位参考线是粒子加速器的重要组成部分之一,为射频低电平控制系统(LLRF)、束流诊断系统、定时系统等提供稳定的相位锁定参考信号。为减少远距离传输过程中由环境温度变化导致的射频传输线中的射频相位漂移,多个加速器装置中已经采用射频相位参考线提供射频相位参考,这些相位参考的实现方案主要是基于恒温控制和基于光纤锁相。与这些方案相比,采用相位平均方法不仅可以保持长距离节点之间的相位稳定,而且更易于现场安装与维护。现有的带有锁相环(PLL)的终端短路方式实现相位平均参考线的方案仍有一些节点数量限制等方面的不足,本文对相位平均参考线结构进行了去除PLL的简化设计并进行了验证,以期增加更多的相位分配节点以及降低对射频器件参数的要求。对非PLL的单端输入终端短路相位平均方案与两端输入各节点间互为参考的相位平均方案分别进行了实验测试,结果表明两者的相位RMS精度可以达到0.1°~0.3°。并对不同的相位平均实现方案中相位不稳定的产生原因进行了分析,结果表明,除环境温度外,同轴线缆材质、合成相位与幅度的不平衡合成等也是重要影响因素。     

Residual dipolar couplings and some specific models for motional averaging

The measurement of residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) from partially oriented molecules is now widely used to provide restraints for NMR structure determination. Bond vibrations, random angular fluctuations around bond vectors and conformational exchange all influence the magnitude of the experimental RDCs. The effect that angular fluctuations have upon the magnitude of RDCs is quantitatively compared using three new models (elliptic, uni-dimensional, and equally populated two site jump) and three established models (static, isotropic motion in a cone and free diffusion about a fixed symmetry axis: Woessner's model) for motional averaging in the limit that the amplitude of motion beta < or = (max)15-20 degrees. The influence of the different motional models on the value of R(obs) determined from the distribution of RDCs is explored. The consequences of the different types of angular motion for the accurate determination of bond vector orientation, with respect to the alignment tensor, A, is investigated. The extent to which motion influences the magnitude of RDCs is compared to some non-dynamic factors affecting RDC size.     

Convergence of phase fluctuation induced by intrachannel four-wave mixing in differential phase-shift keying transmission systems via phase fluctuation averaging

This work investigates the effect of phase fluctuation averaging on phase fluctuation induced by intrachannel four-wave mixing (IFWM) in highly dispersed differential phase-shift keying transmission systems. Through repeatedly averaging the phase fluctuations of adjacent pulses, a simple analytical model and numerical simulation revealed that the IFWM-induced differential phase fluctuation is suppressed and convergent, even after an ultralong transmission. The influence of averaging the phase fluctuations on the bit error rate is also evaluated by the semianalytical method.     

Some aspects of SERS temporal fluctuations: analysis of the most intense spectra of hydrogenated amorphous carbon deposited on silver

Surface‐enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectra of hydrogenated amorphous carbon (a C:H) deposited on silver substrates have been recorded with a confocal Raman microscope. When scattered radiation is collected during a short time from an area of a few square micrometres, the subsequently measured SERS spectra often exhibit strong temporal changes (fluctuations). In this paper we present examples of spectra for which the intensity maxima of the fluctuating narrow Raman bands are significantly higher than that of the background (the background is usually dominated by two broad Raman bands centred at about 1350 and 1590 cm⁻¹). In a series of successively measured spectra, one can find spectra with noticeably different total integral intensity. This suggests that the results of averaging the spectra revealing strong and weak fluctuations may be different (at least in intensity). The influence of some electrolytes on the SERS spectral fluctuations is also analysed. Our experiments revealed that the efficiencies of quenching of the SERS spectral fluctuations by various electrolytes are significantly different. We suggest that only anions directly interacting with the metal surface quench strong SERS fluctuations, and that the large differences between chloride and perchloride solutions are caused by differences in the strength of interaction of Cl⁻ and ClO₄⁻ anions with the silver surface. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Orientation restraints in molecular dynamics simulations using time and ensemble averaging

In this article we present methodology for simulating protein dynamics while imposing restraints derived from NMR measurements on partially ordered molecules. Such measurements may include residual dipolar couplings and chemical-shift anisotropies. We define a restraint potential for use in molecular dynamics and energy minimization. The presented potential is consistent with the simultaneously optimized molecular order tensor. Restraining can be performed with time and ensemble averaging. We performed a large number of molecular dynamics simulations of the histidine containing phosphocarrier protein with restraints on backbone N-H vector orientations derived from residual dipolar couplings. From these simulations it is evident that the use of time- or ensemble-averaged restraints is essential to leave the fluctuations of the restrained vectors unaffected. Without averaging the fluctuations of the restrained vectors are reduced significantly. This also has the effect of decreasing the apparent molecular order-parameter tensor.     

The effects of respiratory CO2 fluctuations in the resting-state BOLD signal differ between eyes open and eyes closed

Resting fluctuations in arterial CO₂ (a cerebral vasodilator) are believed to be an important source of low-frequency blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) signal fluctuations. In this study we focus on the two commonly used resting-states in functional magnetic resonance imaging experiments, eyes open and eyes closed, and quantify the degree to which measured spontaneous fluctuations in the partial pressure of end-tidal CO₂ (Pet_co2) relate to BOLD signal time series. A significantly longer latency of BOLD signal changes following Pet_co2 fluctuations was found in the eyes closed condition compared to with eyes open, which may reveal different intrinsic vascular response delays in CO₂ reactivity or an alteration in the net BOLD signal arising from Pet_co2 fluctuations and altered neural activity with eyes closed. By allowing a spatially varying time delay for the compensation of this temporal difference, a more spatially consistent CO₂ correlation map can be obtained. Finally, Granger-causality analysis demonstrated a “causal” relationship between Pet_co2 and BOLD. The identified dominant Pet_co2→BOLD directional coupling supports the notion that Pet_co2 fluctuations are indeed a cause of resting BOLD variance in the majority of subjects.     

Multivariate analysis of single-molecule spectra: surpassing spectral diffusion

The full exploitation of single-molecule spectroscopy in disordered systems is often hampered by spectral diffusion processes of the optical transitions due to structural fluctuations in the local environment of the probe molecule which leads to temporal averaging of the signal. Multivariate statistical pattern recognition techniques, originally developed for single-molecule cryoelectron microscopy, allow us to retrieve detailed information from optical single-molecule spectra. As an example, we present the phonon side band of the B800 excitations of the light-harvesting 2 (LH2) complex from Rhodospirillum molischianum, revealing the electron-phonon coupling strength for these transitions. The measured Debye-Waller factors, ranging from 0.4 to 0.9, fall in the regime of weak electron-phonon coupling.     

大气湍流对空间光耦合至单模光纤的影响

 根据弱湍理论,考虑湍流强度闪烁、孔径平均效应、湍流波前畸变及耦合系统跟踪误差的影响,导出了空间光到单模光纤的平均耦合效率及耦合功率起伏方差模型。根据Hufnagel-Valley 5/7折射率结构模型,对下行连接及上行连接的平均耦合效率及耦合功率起伏进行了研究。仿真结果表明,对于下行连接,随着地面接收天线孔径的增大,相对功率起伏先是由于孔径平均效应而减小,而后由于湍流波前畸变的影响而逐渐增大;对于上行连接,可忽略湍流波前畸变及孔径平均效应的影响。     

Intensity fluctuations in a limited optical beam

An experimental study was made of the dispersion and correlation functions for intensity fluctuations of laser radiation at distances of 0.5, 2.4, and 7.0 km. The averaging due to the receiver aperture is less important than predicted by theory. The correlation time for the intensity fluctuations in the strong-fluctuation range is a weak function of the path length. At receiver-aperture sizes much greater than the size of the laser beam, large intensity fluctuations are observed, and the probability distribution for the intensity fluctuations is approximately normal.Translated from Izvestiya VUZ. Fizika, No. 2, pp. 52–56, February, 1970.     

Analysis of the concentration of C60 fullerenes in single wall carbon nanotubes

Single wall carbon nanotubes filled with C₆₀ were analyzed using resonance Raman scattering and electron energy loss spectroscopy. In order to obtain concentrations of the fullerene molecules inside the tubes, the scattering intensity from the fullerenes relative to that from the tubes was used. Since the scattering intensity from the tubes is subject to strong fluctuations, the determination of the concentrations is shown to require averaging of results from different lasers and from all observable Raman lines. The fluctuations are shown to be intrinsic and a consequence of photoselective resonance scattering. Calibration of absolute concentrations can be obtained from electron energy loss spectroscopy performed on the same samples. Samples with three different diameters were analyzed and good agreement between the fullerene concentrations measured by the two methods was obtained. Received: 20 September 2002 / Accepted: 4 November 2002 / Published online: 10 March 2003 RID="*" ID="*"Corresponding author. Fax: +43-1/4277-51375, E-mail: kuzman@ap.univie.ac.at