激波管内燃料两相云雾爆轰的实验研究

 在立式激波管中采用压力传感器和烟迹技术实测了6种碳氢燃料（环氧丙烷、硝酸异丙酯、C₅~C₆、己烷、庚烷和癸烷）与空气混合物的临界起爆能和爆轰波胞格尺寸。结果表明，燃料气液两相云雾爆轰的临界起爆能与当量比呈“U”形曲线关系，并且最敏感的起爆点在富燃料一侧，这与气相爆轰结论是一致的；由三波点运动的烟迹记录结果分析得出，雾滴的碎解、蒸发汽化过程以及燃烧区前导是控制气液两相云雾爆轰的作用机制。     

环形通道内爆轰波的起爆机制

旋转爆轰发动机环形燃烧室和预爆轰管的设计是影响发动机点火性能的关键因素。为了获得环形燃烧室中的起爆机制，使用多帧短时开快门摄像法，研究了不同含量氩气稀释的乙炔-氧气爆轰波经直管道沿切向进入环形通道中的传播过程和模式，重点关注爆轰波的失效和重新起爆机制。通过分析胞格模式发现环形通道内爆轰波的传播模式可以分为亚临界、临界和超临界3种状态。环形通道内爆轰波在顺时针和逆时针方向同时传播，根据初始压力和环形管道宽度的不同，会出现完全熄爆模式、熄爆-重新起爆模式和完全不熄爆模式，对应亚临界、临界和超临界3种状态。3种状态在顺时针和逆时针方向出现的顺序并不一致，相比较而言逆时针方向更易熄爆。研究同时也发现重新起爆通过两种方式实现：一种是通过解耦爆轰波与内壁面的反射以及其后的横向爆轰波，另外一种是通过燃烧转爆轰。通过分析直管的临界管径发现，随着环形通道宽度的增大，对于高浓度或低浓度氩气稀释的乙炔-氧气爆轰波，其临界管径均趋近于经典衍射问题中不稳定爆轰波的临界管径。实验研究结论将为旋转爆轰发动机燃烧室和预爆轰管的结构设计提供技术支持。     

氢气/甲烷-空气爆轰波在含环形障碍物圆管内传播的试验研究

在内径48mm、长度5 800mm的含环形障碍物圆管内,进行了氢气-空气及氢气-甲烷-空气的爆轰波传播试验研究,确定了爆燃转爆轰(Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition,DDT)极限。环形障碍物阻塞比为0.56,间距分为两种,即S=D和S=2D,其中S为障碍物间距,D为管道内径。火焰的速度由安装在管道壁面上的光电二极管采集得到。试验测量得到的火焰为准爆轰或阻塞火焰。在S=2D情况下得到的火焰速度均比S=D情况下的火焰速度高,并且靠近DDT极限时速度波动更明显,表明在间距较大的情况下爆轰的重起爆循环周期更长,类似于"弛振爆轰"。对于氢气-空气,障碍物间距为D时在DDT极限处有d/λ1(富氧条件下d/λ=1.6,贫氧条件下d/λ=1.4),间距为2D时更容易形成爆轰的重起爆,在DDT极限处与准则d/λ≈1一致;对于氢气-甲烷-空气,甲烷的添加使爆轰更不稳定,对于两种间距的障碍物得到的DDT极限均有d/λ≈1(d和λ分别为障碍物内径和爆轰胞格尺寸)。说明障碍物间距对爆轰波传播有显著的影响,即间距的增大更有利于爆轰波的传播。为形成准爆轰,障碍物内径必须至少可以容纳一个爆轰胞格,同时障碍物间距足够大从而引起爆轰的重起爆。     

扩散时间对乙烯-空气燃爆特性的影响

为探究在有限空间中,初始压力为0.25MPa、两处乙烯气体瞬时源在不同扩散时间下的燃爆特性,在内径200mm、高5 400mm的立式激波管中,采用上下进气方式,在强起爆条件下,测定5个不同扩散时间下3种浓度的乙烯-空气混合气体(C2H4-Air)的燃爆参数。实验结果表明,扩散时间大于1h后,3种浓度的C2H4-Air混合气体燃爆参数趋于一致。4.00%(体积分数)C2H4-Air在当前实验条件下未能达到爆轰。6.67%C2H4-Air在5个扩散时间均可达到爆轰,扩散时间为1h时的爆压、爆速分别为4.24 MPa、1 719m/s。8.89%C2H4-Air在0.08h扩散时间下只发生爆燃,扩散时间为0.5h及以上发生爆轰,扩散时间为1h时的爆压、爆速分别为4.31 MPa、1 813m/s。通过烟熏技术捕捉到6.67%、8.89%的C2H4-Air混合气体的爆轰波胞格,胞格宽度分别为8.22、14.15mm,长宽比分别为1.44、1.57。     

强点火条件下RP-3航空煤油燃爆特性实验研究

为进一步探究影响RP-3航空煤油燃爆特性参数的因素,在内径为200mm、高度为5 400mm的立式激波管中,采用强点火方式,测定了其在不同浓度下的临界起爆能以及不同起爆能量、浓度当量比、喷雾压力下RP-3航空煤油的爆速和爆压。实验结果表明:航空煤油的临界起爆能随浓度当量比的增加先急剧降低,达到最小值后又缓慢上升,基本呈"L"形变化;在喷雾压力为0.20~0.60MPa、同一浓度条件下,RP-3航空煤油的爆速、爆压随喷雾压力的变化曲线呈倒"U"形;随着起爆能量升高,爆速、爆压均呈直线上升趋势,并且当起爆能量小于1.68MJ/m~2时,煤油未达到直接爆轰状态;燃料的爆速、爆压随浓度当量比的增加先上升后下降,其变化趋势也基本呈倒"U"形。     

碳氢混合燃料（C5~C6）气云爆轰胞格结构实验研究

 改进烟迹技术之后，在初始为常温常压的条件下，进行了碳氢混合燃料（C₅~C₆）的气云爆轰胞格结构实验研究，得到了清晰的胞格烟迹记录，同时讨论了燃料气云的当量比和起爆能对胞格结构的影响。实验表明：C₅~C₆混合燃料的爆轰波胞格宽度和胞格长度均随当量比的增加而线性增大；随着起爆能的不断增大，混合燃料的胞格宽度和胞格长度均是先增大后减小，且当起爆能足够高时，在胞格结构内可观察到精细结构的存在。     

大型水平管道中环氧丙烷-铝粉-空气混和物爆燃转爆轰的实验研究

 在长为32.4 m、内径为0.199 m的大型长直水平管道中,对环氧丙烷-空气两相流云雾及环氧丙烷-铝粉-空气三相流云雾的爆燃转爆轰（DDT）过程进行了实验研究。对弱点火条件下多相混和物DDT过程的不同阶段特征进行了分析,对比研究了不同浓度时混和物的燃爆情况。结果表明：浓度为513 g/m³的环氧丙烷-空气混和物及浓度为237和643 g/m³的环氧丙烷-铝粉-空气混和物均能在管道中完成爆燃向爆轰的转变,进入自持爆轰阶段,其胞格尺寸分别为0.28和0.50 m。     

均匀炸药冲击起爆和起爆后的行为

 介绍并分析了Campbell等人研究均匀炸药冲击起爆和起爆后行为所获得的实验结果,但不涉及其冲击起爆条件。Campbell等人的实验表明,足够强的冲击波进入硝基甲烷后,经过若干微秒的感应时间,爆轰发生在隔板与炸药间的界面处。这就是说,在均匀炸药中,足够强的冲击虽非瞬时但直接（指不经过其它过程,如爆燃）引发了爆轰。重新处理后的实验数据表明：硝基甲烷起爆后,爆轰波的净爆速小于正常爆速;当进入硝基甲烷的初始冲击波的有效压力p_eff由8.82 GPa升至12.14 GPa时,感应时间t_ind的实验值由3.06 μs降至0.705 μs。以两相的排平（A,m）物态方程描述爆轰产物,较为严格地重新推导了基于热起爆理论的估算感应时间t_ind的公式。在上述p_eff的变化范围内,t_ind的理论值则由248 μs降至0.99 μs,明显地高于实验值。这表明,热起爆理论不适于描述硝基甲烷的冲击起爆行为。从本质上讲,热起爆理论对均匀炸药的冲击起爆行为的描述,不符合物质运动的微观图像,因此,它不适于描述均匀炸药的上述行为。     

RDX炸药爆轰产物物态方程

采用基于统计物理的爆轰产物物态方程模型,研究了不同初始密度下RDX炸药爆轰产物性质,发现炸药初始密度小于1.20g/cm3时,炸药爆轰后只有气相产物生成,随着炸药初始密度进一步增大,爆轰后有固相碳析出。炸药初始密度小于1.60g/cm3时,各气相产物按均匀混合处理,计算的爆速、爆压和实验值符合较好。随着炸药初始密度进一步增大,计算的爆速、爆压与实验值出现较大的偏差,经分析发现此处可能出现了超临界流体相分离现象,在物态方程模型中考虑了这种效应后,得到较好的结果。     

气相爆轰波在分叉管中传播现象的数值研究

数值研究气相爆轰波在分叉管中的传播现象.用二阶附加半隐龙格-库塔法和5阶WENO格式求解二维欧拉方程,用基元反应描述爆轰化学反应过程,得到了密度、压力、温度、典型组元质量分数场及数值胞格结构和爆轰波平均速度.结果表明:气相爆轰波在分叉管中传播,分叉口左尖点的稀疏波导致诱导激波后压力、温度急剧下降,诱导激波和化学反应区分离,爆轰波衰减为爆燃波(即爆轰熄灭).分离后的诱导激波在垂直支管右壁面反射,并导致二次起爆.畸变的诱导激波在水平和垂直支管中均发生马赫反射.分叉口上游均匀胞格区和分叉口附近大胞格区的边界不是直线,其起点通常位于分叉口左尖点上游或恰在左尖点.水平支管中马赫反射三波点迹线始于右尖点下游.分叉口左尖点附近的流场中出现了复杂的旋涡结构、未反应区及激波与旋涡作用.旋涡加速了未反应区的化学反应速率.反射激波与旋涡作用并使旋涡破碎.反射激波与未反应区作用,加速其反应消耗,并形成一个内嵌的射流.数值计算得到的波系演变和胞格结构与实验定性一致.     

一维过驱动爆轰波形成的数值研究

利用有限速率的基元反应模型对一维过驱动爆轰波的形成过程进行数值模拟.研究表明,在上游高温、高压、高速来流作用下首先会形成一道强激波,其波面方存在诱导区和放热区,然后诱导区和放热区界面会在来流扰动的作用下发生失稳,经过复杂的波系运动过程形成过驱动爆轰波.通过对不同初始条件下界面失稳过程的模拟和分析,研究了混合气体的组元、温度,来流的压力、温度、速度对过驱动爆轰波形成的影响.     

Visualization of the non-steady state oblique detonation wave phenomena around hypersonic spherical projectile

We studied experimentally the shock waves and combustion waves generated by a hypersonic spherical projectile in an explosive mixture. An acetylene/oxygen mixture diluted with argon (2C₂H₂ + 5O₂ + 7Ar) was used with various initial pressures (detonation cell sizes) to observe optically with a shadowgraph imaging system a shock-induced combustion (SIC), a stable oblique detonation wave (ODW), and a wave called a Straw Hat type consisting of a strong SIC and ODW. The criticality of stabilizing an ODW around a projectile is expressed by the ratio of the projectile diameter, d, to the cell size, λ, as d/λ = 3.63–4.84. Although the Straw Hat type wave in the vicinity of criticality is an unstable phenomena, it has been mainly observed by a single frame picture to date, so that it is difficult to discuss the time history of its wave structure. In this study, it was remarkable to directly carry out continuous optical observations using a high speed video camera which can continuously film 100 pictures with a 1 μs frame speed so as to allow an investigation of the sustaining mechanism of the unstable wave structure. Our results allowed the identification of an increase in unsteadiness in the relative distance between the projectile fronts and the transition points to an ODW as the time increased. They also showed local explosions in the SIC region near transition point transformed the ODW front upstream.     

非均匀炸药冲击起爆和起爆后的行为

 介绍并分析了Campbell 等人及其他作者研究非均匀炸药冲击起爆和起爆后行为所获得的实验结果,但不涉及其冲击起爆条件。足够强的冲击波进入非均匀炸药后,爆轰将瞬时（指不经过感应时间）且直接（指不经过其他过程,如爆燃）被引发;非均匀炸药起爆后,其中传播的自始至终是一个不断增长的爆轰波,直至发展为正常爆轰,整个过程都是爆轰的增长（新定义）过程。不存在由反应冲击波不断增长并转变为爆轰波的所谓向爆轰的增长。所谓向爆轰的增长,实际上是爆轰的增长（按新定义）的初期;Craig原定义的爆轰的增长,实际上是爆轰的增长（按新定义）的后期;而所谓反应冲击波,实际上是增长中的初期爆轰波。爆轰的增长（按新定义）是所有猛炸药的特性,炸药反应不充分并逐渐趋于充分是爆轰的增长的化学机制。     

激光驱动飞片冲击引爆炸药的计算

 在Gurney方程和考虑金属相变状态方程的基础上， 提出了一种激光驱动飞片运动的计算模型。这种模型能确定与炸药临界起爆相关的参数，诸如沉积的激光能量、烧蚀层和飞片的厚度以及飞片飞行的距离等等。计算的结果与实验相符。在本模型中可以对电离、烧蚀及二维效应作进一步的考虑。     

Shock wave and detonation propagation through U-bend tubes

The objective of the research outlined in this paper is to provide experimental and computational data on initiation, propagation, and stability of gaseous fuel–air detonations in tubes with U-bends implying their use for design optimization of pulse detonation engines (PDEs). The experimental results with the U-bends of two curvatures indicate that, on the one hand, the U-bend of the tube promotes the shock-induced detonation initiation. On the other hand, the detonation wave propagating through the U-bend is subjected to complete decay or temporary attenuation followed by the complete recovery in the straight tube section downstream from the U-bend. Numerical simulation of the process reveals some salient features of transient phenomena in U-tubes.     

Combustion wave propagation and detonation initiation in the vicinity of closed-tube end walls

There are not many studies on DDT with no obstacles and the initiation of DDT near the end of a closed tube. Therefore in the present study we experimentally investigate the mechanism of the combustion wave transition to a detonation wave when there are no obstacles. In particular, we show that a local explosion near the tube wall is necessary for the initiation of a detonation. Parameters that we varied are the wall configuration, distance between the ignition point and the wall, and initial filling pressure. The combustion waves and the compression waves are visualized using the Schlieren optical system. From the results, we found it is necessary for the combustion wave to reach four walls so that the detonation could be initiated by the local explosion. In the conditions of the present experiment, we exhibited that the local explosion did not occur in the vicinity of a single wall and four orthogonal walls; instead, the local explosion occurred in a situation with five orthogonal walls. The time of the local explosion and the detonation initiation is 2.6 ± 1.1 and 2.0 ± 0.1 times the characteristic time for the combustion wave to propagate hemispherically from an ignitor and reach the four walls.     

Effects of high activation energies on acoustic timescale detonation initiation

Acoustic timescale Deflagration-to-Detonation Transition (DDT) has been shown to occur through the generation of compression waves emitted by a hot spot or reaction centre where the pressure and temperature increase with little diminution of density. In order to compensate for the multi-scale nature of the physico-chemical processes, previous numerical simulations in this area have been limited to relatively small activation energies. In this work, a computational study investigates the effect of increased activation energy on the time required to form a detonation wave and the change in behaviour of each hot spot as the activation energy is increased. The simulations use a localised spatially distributed thermal power deposition of limited duration into a finite volume of reactive gas to facilitate DDT. The Adaptive Wavelet-Collocation Method is used to solve efficiently the 1-D reactive Euler equations with one-step Arrhenius kinetics. The DDT process as described in previous work is characterised by the formation of hot spots during an initial transient period, explosion of the hot spots and creation of an accelerating reaction front that reaches the lead shock and forms an overdriven detonation wave. Current results indicate that as the activation energy is raised the chemical heat release becomes more temporally distributed. Hot spots that produce an accelerating reaction front with low activation energies change behaviour with increased activation energy so that no accelerating reaction front is created. An acoustic timescale ratio is defined that characterises the change in behaviour of each hot spot.     

Direct blast initiation of spherical gaseous detonations in highly argon diluted mixtures

In this study, direct initiation of spherical detonations in highly argon diluted mixtures is investigated. Direct initiation is achieved via a high voltage capacitor spark discharge and the critical energy is estimated from the analysis of the current output. Stoichiometric acetylene–oxygen mixtures highly diluted with 70% argon is used in the experiment. Previous investigations have suggested that detonations in mixtures that are highly diluted with argon have been shown to be “stable” in that the reaction zone is at least piecewise laminar described by the ZND model and cellular instabilities play a minor role on the detonation propagation. For the acetylene–oxygen mixture that is highly diluted with argon, the experimental results show that the critical energy where the detonation is “stable” is in good agreement with the Zel’dovich criterion of the cubic dependence on the ZND reaction length, which can be readily determined using the chemical kinetic data of the reaction. The experimental results are also compared with those estimated using Lee’s surface energy model where empirical data on detonation cell sizes are required. Good agreement is found between the experimental measurement and theoretical model prediction, where the breakdown of the 13λ relationship for critical tube diameter – and hence a different propagation and initiation mechanism – is elucidated in highly argon diluted mixtures and this appears to indicate that cellular instabilities do not have a prominent effect on the initiation process of a stable detonation.     

Multi-dimensional mesoscale simulations of detonation initiation in energetic materials with density-based kinetics

In this work we present multi-dimensional mesoscale simulations of detonation initiation in energetic materials. We solve the reactive Euler equations, with the energy equation augmented by a power deposition term. The reaction rate at the mesoscale is modelled using density-based kinetics, while the deposition term is based on simulations of void collapse at the microscale, modelled at the mesoscale as hot spots. We carry out two- and three-dimensional mesoscale simulations of random packs of HMX crystals in a binder, and show that transition between no-detonation and detonation depends on the number density of the hot spots, the packing fraction, and the post-shock pressure of an imposed shock. In particular, we show that, for a fixed post-shock pressure, there exists a critical value of the number density of hot spots, such that when the number density is below this value a detonation wave will not develop. We highlight the importance of morphology to initiation by comparing with a homogeneous counterpart, and we compare relevant length scales by examining their corresponding power spectra. We also examine the effect of packing fraction and show that at low post-shock pressures there is significant variation in the initiation times, but that this variation disappears as the post-shock pressure is increased. Finally, we compare three-dimensional simulations with the experimental data, and show that the model is capable of qualitatively reproducing the trends shown in the data.