Thermal Fatigue Damage Assessment in an Isotropic Pipe Using Nonlinear Ultrasonic Guided Waves

The use of nonlinear ultrasonic waves has been accepted as a potential technique to characterize the state of material micro-structure in solids. The typical nonlinear phenomenon is generation of second harmonics. Second harmonic generation of ultrasonic waves propagation has been vigorously studied for tracking material micro-damages in unbounded media and plate-like waveguides. However, there are few studies of launching second harmonic guided wave propagation in tube-like structures. Considering that second harmonics could provide useful information sensitive for material degradation condition, this research aims at developing a procedure for detecting second harmonics of ultrasonic guided wave in an isotropic pipe. The second harmonics generation of guided wave propagation in an isotropic and stress-free elastic pipe is investigated. Flexible polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) comb transducers are used to measure fundamental wave and second harmonic one. Experimental results show that nonlinear parameters increase monotonically with propagation distance. This work experimentally verifies that the second harmonics of guided waves in pipe have the cumulative effect with propagation distance. The proposed procedure is applied to assessing thermal fatigue damage indicated by nonlinearity in an aluminum pipe. The experimental observation verifies that nonlinear guided waves can be used to assess damage levels in early thermal fatigue state by correlating them with the acoustic nonlinearity.     

Nonlinear Lamb waves in plate/shell structures

鉴于常规超声检测技术对分布式材料细微损伤和接触类结构损伤的检测效果不佳,近年来非线性超声技术逐渐引起广泛关注.超声波在板壳结构中通常以兰姆波的形式进行传播,然而由于兰姆波的频散及多模特性,使得非线性兰姆波的理论和实验研究进展缓慢.本文从经典非线性理论出发,总结了源于材料固有非线性诱发的非线性兰姆波的理论和实验两个方面的研究进展,并综述了兰姆波的二次谐波发生效应在材料损伤评价方面的若干应用;从接触声非线性理论出发,讨论了目前由于接触类结构损伤诱发的非线性兰姆波的研究现状.最后展望了非线性兰姆波的未来研究重点及发展趋势.     

An interactive micro-void shear localization mechanism in high strength steels

Ductility of high strength steels is often restricted by the onset of a void-sheet mechanism in which failure occurs by a micro-void shear localization process. For the first time, the micro-void shear instability mechanism is identified here by examining the interactions occurring within a system of multiple embedded secondary particles (carbides ∼10-100 nm), through a finite element based computational cell modeling technique (in two and three dimensions). Shear deformation leads to the nucleation of micro-voids as the secondary particles debond from the surrounding alloy matrix. The nucleated micro-voids grow into elongated void tails along the principal shear plane and coalesce with the micro-voids nucleated at neighboring particles. At higher strains, the neighboring particles are driven towards each other, further escalating the severity of the shear coalescence effect. This shear driven nucleation, growth and coalescence mechanism leads to a decrease in the load-bearing surface in the shear plane and a terminal shear instability occurs. The mechanism is incorporated mathematically into a hierarchical steel model. The simulated response corresponds to experimentally observed behavior only when the micro-void shear localization mechanism is considered.     

Assessment of Heat Treated Inconel X-750 Alloy by Nonlinear Ultrasonics

The nonlinear ultrasonic technique is known as a promising tool for monitoring material states related with micro-structural changes, with improved sensitivity compared to conventional nondestructive testing techniques. It is well known that degradation of material properties is generally accompanied by the increase of material nonlinearity. However, the trend has been rarely investigated in the opposite way for improved material properties. In this paper, nonlinear ultrasonic waves are used to assess the material condition of heat treated Inconel X-750 alloy based on the nonlinear acoustic parameters. Material property testing is conducted to compare the influence of heat treatment for comparison with the nonlinear parameter based prediction. The material properties of specimens are improved by applying heat treatment, with significant decreases in the acoustic nonlinearity. The better the mechanical property achieves via heat treatment, the smaller the acoustic nonlinearity becomes. It can be concluded that the nonlinear acoustic technique can be used to evaluate the effect of heat treatment nondestructively, and to optimize the process, thus providing another indication of the feasibility of using the nonlinear ultrasonic technique for material characterization.     

一种新的岩石非线性损伤蠕变模型

为描述岩石加速蠕变阶段的非线性变形规律,在广义开尔文体基础上串联一个村山体,基于Kachanov损伤率理论,建立了损伤变量D与蠕变时间的函数关系,并根据Lemaitre应变等效原理将村山体中的无损模型参数p用有效模型参数p(1-D)代替,以此来表征岩石加速蠕变阶段的非线性,建立了一种新的非线性损伤蠕变模型;根据广义塑性力学理论给出了该模型的三维蠕变方程;采用Levenberg-Marquardt非线性优化最小二乘法对红砂岩和绿片岩常规三轴压缩蠕变试验数据进行拟合,反演得到这两种岩石的蠕变模型参数。拟合结果表明:拟合曲线与试验曲线的拟合相关系数R2分别为0.999和0.992,说明该蠕变模型能较好地反映这两种岩石各阶段的蠕变曲线特征。     

A thermodynamic approach to nonlinear ultrasonics for material state awareness and prognosis

We develop a thermodynamic framework for modeling nonlinear ultrasonic damage sensing and prognosis in materials undergoing progressive damage. The framework is based on the internal variable approach and relies on the construction of a pseudo-elastic strain energy function that captures the energetics associated with the damage progression. The pseudo-elastic strain energy function is composed of two energy functions—one that describes how a material stores energy in an elastic fashion and the other describes how material dissipates energy or stores it in an inelastic fashion. Experimental motivation for the choice of the above two functionals is discussed and some specific choices pertaining to damage progression during fatigue and creep are presented. The thermodynamic framework is employed to model the nonlinear response of material undergoing stress relaxation and creep-like degradation. For each of the above cases, evolution of the nonlinearity parameter with damage as well as with macroscopic measurables like accumulated plastic strain is obtained.     

含水状态下油页岩非线性损伤蠕变特性研究

为研究水对油页岩蠕变规律的影响,以不同含水状态下油页岩三轴压缩蠕变实验数据为依据,对水作用下油页岩蠕变3个阶段各自的力学特征进行了分析。作者认为,在衰减蠕变和稳态蠕变阶段岩石内部损伤程度较小;当岩石处于加速蠕变阶段时,岩石内部不断产生损伤,呈现出明显非线性特征,同时水作用进一步加剧了岩石蠕变损伤程度。本文将非线性损伤演化方程引入到改进的Burgers模型中,将含水率变化引起的蠕变参数的变化引入到方程中,建立了不同含水率下油页岩非线性损伤蠕变模型。采用非线性最小二乘法反演蠕变参数,将蠕变方程计算结果与实验结果进行拟合,效果良好。     

Hysteretic linear and nonlinear acoustic responses from pressed interfaces

An analysis of the linear and nonlinear acoustic responses from an interface between rough surfaces in elastoplastic contact is presented as a model of the ultrasonic wave interactions with imperfect interfaces and closed cracks. A micromechanical elastoplastic contact model predicts the linear and second order interfacial stiffness from the topographic and mechanical properties of the contacting surfaces during a loading–unloading cycle. The effects of those surface properties on the linear and nonlinear reflection/transmission of elastic longitudinal waves are shown. The second order harmonic amplitudes of reflected/transmitted waves decrease by more than an order of magnitude during the transition from the elastic contact mode to the elastoplastic contact mode. It is observed that under specific loading histories the interface between smooth surfaces generates higher elastoplastic hysteresis in the interfacial stiffness and the acoustic nonlinearity than interfaces between rough surfaces. The results show that when plastic flow in the contacting asperities is significant, the acoustic nonlinearity is insensitive to the asperity peak distribution. A comparison with existing experimental data for the acoustic nonlinearity in the transmitted waves is also given with a discussion on its contact mechanical implication.     

Prediction of creep rupture in 2.25Cr–1Mo notched bars

This paper re-examines the creep life methodology based on the continuum damage mechanics (CDM) of the Kachanov and Rabotnov theory. Uniaxial creep and multiaxial creep rupture formulations are presented taking into account the primary creep effect. The scalar damage parameter is computed up to time-to-rupture as a function of time and stress. The methodology implemented is based on the uniaxial time-to-rupture obtained experimentally. The times-to-rupture for bars with different notches are calculated. It is demonstrated that the use of the damage parameter is vital to indicate the critical damage location where failure occurs. Results are compared to those obtained experimentally. It is shown that the primary creep inclusion has a significant effect on the damage distribution zone.     

Characterization of surface damage of a solid plate under tensile loading using nonlinear Rayleigh waves

This letter reports experimental observation of a direct correlation between the acoustic nonlinearity parameter (NP) measured with nonlinear Rayleigh waves and the accumulation of plasticity damage in an AZ31 magnesium alloy plate specimen. Rayleigh waves are generated and detected with wedge transducers, and the NPs are measured at different stress levels. The results show that there is a significant increase in the NPs with monotonic tensile loads surpassing the material's yielding stress. The research suggests an effective nondestructive evaluation method to track the surface damage in metals.     

基于Burgers模型考虑损伤的岩石蠕变全过程研究

岩石蠕变是一个显著的非线性问题，而经典的Burgers 模型是一种线性蠕变模型，必然不能全面地描述岩石蠕变的全过程．当岩石处于高应力水平下的加速蠕变阶段，岩石内部损伤会不断产生和累积，蠕变呈现出明显的非线性特征．为了更好地描述考虑损伤的岩石蠕变全过程，本文假定加速蠕变阶段的损伤演化方程，将损伤引入到Burgers 模型中，提出了一种非线性蠕变损伤模型．然后以乔后盐矿试件蠕变实测数据为分析案例，验证模型在应用于实际工程时的准确性和适用性．最后根据Origin 软件数值拟合的结果，表明本文所提出的非线性蠕变损伤模型能很好地描述岩石蠕变全过程，模型参数取值也在合理范围之内，模型拟合曲线与实验所得数据具有较好的一致性．     

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS ON THE NUCLEATION OF MICRO-DAMAGE IN CEMENT MORTAR UNDER COMPRESSIVE LOADING AND SULFATE ATTACK

Effect of uniaxial compression on the nucleation of micro-damage in cement mortar under sulfate attack is investigated.Shape and size of micro-voids in cement mortar is detected using Micro Computed Tomography techniques.The formation of delayed ettringite crystal is analyzed using scanning electron microscope and energy disperse spectrum methods.Deformation of micro-voids and the distribution of stress at the surface of a micro-void are calculated.It is found that the nucleation of micro-cracks is caused by the tensile stress at the voids’ surface,and such damage nucleation will be speeded up by the remote uniaxial compressive load.     

Analytical extension of Finite Element solution for computing the nonlinear far field of ultrasonic waves scattered by a closed crack

Nonlinear scattering of ultrasonic waves by closed cracks subject to contact acoustic nonlinearity (CAN) is determined using a 2D Finite Element (FE) coupled with an analytical approach. The FE model, which includes unilateral contact with Coulomb friction to account for contact between crack faces, provides the near-field solution for the interaction between in-plane elastic waves and a crack of different orientations. The numerical solution is then analytically extended in the far-field based on a frequency domain near-to-far field transformation technique, yielding directivity patterns for all linear and nonlinear components of the scattered waves. The proposed method is demonstrated by application to two nonlinear acoustic problems in the case of tone-burst excitations: first, the scattering of higher harmonics resulting from the interaction with a closed crack of various orientations, and second, the scattering of the longitudinal wave resulting from the nonlinear interaction between two shear waves and a closed crack. The analysis of the directivity patterns enables us to identify the characteristics of the nonlinear scattering from a closed crack, which provides essential understanding in order to optimize and apply nonlinear acoustic NDT methods.     

Multiresolution continuum modeling of micro-void assisted dynamic adiabatic shear band propagation

A thermal-mechanical multiresolution continuum theory is applied within a finite element framework to model the initiation and propagation of dynamic shear bands in a steel alloy. The shear instability and subsequent stress collapse, which are responsible for dynamic adiabatic shear band propagation, are captured by including the effects of shear driven microvoid damage in a single constitutive model. The shear band width during propagation is controlled via a combination of thermal conductance and an embedded evolving length scale parameter present in the multiresolution continuum formulation. In particular, as the material reaches a shear instability and begins to soften, the dominant length scale parameter (and hence shear band width) transitions from the alloy grain size to the spacing between micro-voids. Emphasis is placed on modeling stress collapse due to micro-void damage while simultaneously capturing the appropriate scale of inhomogeneous deformation. The goal is to assist in the microscale optimization of alloys which are susceptible to shear band failure.     

材料力学性能退化的超声无损检测与评价

材料性能退化总是伴随着某种形式的材料非线性力学行为, 从而引起超声波传播的非线性, 即高频谐波的产生.基于此,材料和结构的超声无损检测与主人技术发展成起来.首先介绍固体介质内的非线性超声波动方程的基础, 并综述了利用超声波传播的非线性特性对结构材料和粘结面的力学性能退化进行无损检测与评价的研究进展.之后对材料在疲劳、拉伸以及蠕变载荷作用下, 其力学性能退化进行超声无损检测与评价的试验研究进行了介绍;综述了超声波传播非线性的机理研究, 以及利用超声波对粘结面的粘结强度及其力学性能退化评估所开展的研究. 最后指出了今后该领域需要进一步研究的问题.      

基于Lemaitre原理改进砂岩蠕变损伤模型研究

以煤矿巷道围岩（砂岩）为研究对象,采用MTS815.02岩石力学试验系统,对流固耦合蠕变过程中孔隙水压力作用机制展开研究,以伯格斯模型为基础,基于Lemaitre原理建立改进的伯格斯非线性蠕变损伤模型,可以得到如下主要结论：当围压越大,岩石蠕变最后一级荷载作用持续时间越长,相对经历衰减蠕变和稳定蠕变时间越长;且由最终一级破坏蠕变变形值可知,孔隙水压较小时,蠕变变形量相对较大,此时围压增大提升了岩石延性特性,但是孔隙水压增大却削弱了围压作用,由于孔隙水压使得岩石力学性能劣化,因而减少了岩石在破坏时蠕变变形量;随后基于Lemaitre原理建立的伯格斯非线性损伤蠕变模型,可以较好地描述岩石的衰减蠕变、稳定蠕变与加速蠕变阶段;且试验曲线与拟合曲线吻合度高,验证了本文所建立损伤流变模型的合理性．     

Interesting effects in harmonic generation by plane elastic waves

The harmonics of plane longitudinal and trans-verse waves in nonlinear elastic solids with up to cubic nonlinearity in a one-dimensional setting are investigated in this paper. It is shown that due to quadratic nonlinearity, a transverse wave generates a second longitudinal harmonic. This propagates with the velocity of transverse waves, as well as resonant transverse first and third harmonics due to the cubic and quadratic nonlinearities. A longitudinal wave generates a resonant longitudinal second harmonic, as well as first and third harmonics with amplitudes that increase linearly and quadratically with distance propagated. In a second investigation, incidence from the linear side of a pri-mary wave on an interface between a linear and a nonlinear elastic solid is considered. The incident wave crosses the interface and generates a harmonic with interface conditions that are equilibrated by compensatory waves propagating in two directions away from the interface. The back-propagated compensatory wave provides information on the nonlinear elastic constants of the material behind the interface. It is shown that the amplitudes of the compensatory waves can be increased by mixing two incident longitudinal waves of appropriate frequencies.     

矩形板非线性蠕变损伤屈曲特性分析

基于Von Karman非线性板理论和Kachanov-Rabotnov损伤理论,建立了在横向和面内载荷共同作用下考虑蠕变损伤效应的矩形板的非线性控制平衡方程,采用有限差分法和时间增量算法对未知变量进行离散,对整个问题进行迭代求解,分析了几何非线性、荷载等因素对板非线性蠕变损伤特性的影响。     

板壳结构中的非线性兰姆波

鉴于常规超声检测技术对分布式材料细微损伤和接触类结构损伤的检测效果不佳,近年来非线性超声技术逐渐引起广泛关注.超声波在板壳结构中通常以兰姆波的形式进行传播,然而由于兰姆波的频散及多模特性,使得非线性兰姆波的理论和实验研究进展缓慢.本文从经典非线性理论出发,总结了源于材料固有非线性诱发的非线性兰姆波的理论和实验两个方面的研究进展,井综述了兰姆波的二次谐波发生效应在材料损伤评价方面的若干应用;从接触声非线性理论出发,讨论了目前由于接触类结构损伤诱发的非线性兰姆波的研究现状.最后展望了非线性兰姆波的未来研究重点及发展趋势.     

Modeling non-collinear mixing by distributions of clapping microcracks

Nonlinear scattering by distributions of clapping cracks in a non-collinear wave mixing setting is modeled. Features of the nonlinear response discriminating distributions of clapping cracks from quadratic nonlinear damage are investigated for distributions of cracks that are parallel to each other or randomly oriented. The effective properties of these distributions are recovered extending an existing model that applies to open cracks. The equation of motion is solved using a perturbation approach, and its solutions are evaluated numerically. Their dependence on the amplitude of the incident field is found to be linear, in contrast with the quadratic dependence characterizing quadratic nonlinearity. The spectrum of the scattered field is shown to contain an infinite number of higher harmonics already at the first order of perturbation. Grating-like structures due to the opening and closing of cracks are responsible for adding diffraction peaks to the directivity functions of waves scattered by open cracks. The locations of the most prominent peaks of these functions do not satisfy the selection rules controlling nonlinear scattering by quadratic nonlinearity. Examples of these are given, together with others showing the possibility of using at least one of several discrimination modalities offered by non-collinear wave mixing.