Methodologies for weight estimation of fixed and flapping wing micro air vehicles

One of the important steps in the sizing process of fixed and flapping wing micro air vehicles (MAVs) is weight estimation of the electrical and structural components. In order to enhance the flight performance and endurance of MAVs, it is required to carefully estimate their weight with a minimum error. In this study, methodologies to estimate the weight of fixed and flapping wing MAVs are proposed. After dividing the total weight of the MAV into weights of structural and electrical components, these two weights are separately identified. The weight of the MAV electrical components is estimated by using engineering design techniques and the weight of the structure is identified by using statistical and computational methods. The proposed methodology for structural weight estimation is based on calculating the percentage of the used material in the construction of different parts of MAVs and then presenting the weight of each part in terms of the wing surface. The proposed computational method gives the exact estimation for the weight of each structure component, such as wing, tail, fuselage, and etc. Based on the offered method for weight estimation of MAVs, the weight estimation of a fixed wing MAV with inverse Zimmerman planform and a flapping wing MAV named “Thunder I” are experimentally shown. This developed methodology gives guidelines for weight estimation and determination of the structural weight percentages in order to design and fabricate efficient fixed and flapping wing MAVs.     

Virtual flight simulation of a dual rotor micro air vehicle

In this paper, a new computational method is developed based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) coupled with rigid body dynamics (RBD) and flight control law in an in-house programmed source code. The CFD solver is established based on momentum source method, preconditioning method, lower–upper symmetric Gauss–Seidel iteration method, and moving overset grid method. Two-equation shear–stress transport k ? ω turbulence model is employed to close the governing equations. Third-order Adams prediction-correction method is used to couple CFD and RBD in the inner iteration. The wing-rock motion of the delta wing is simulated to validate the capability of the computational method for virtual flight simulation. Finally, the developed computational method is employed to simulate the longitudinal virtual flight of a dual rotor micro air vehicle (MAV). Results show that the computational method can simulate the virtual flight of the dual rotor MAV.     

An efficient method for nonlinear aeroelasticy of slender wings

This paper aims the nonlinear aeroelastic analysis of slender wings using a nonlinear structural model coupled with the linear unsteady aerodynamic model. High aspect ratio and flexibility are the specific characteristic of this type of wings. Wing flexibility, coupled with long wingspan can lead to large deflections during normal flight operation of an aircraft; therefore, a wing in vertical/forward-afterward/torsional motion using a third-order form of nonlinear general flexible Euler–Bernoulli beam equations is used for structural modeling. Unsteady linear aerodynamic strip theory based on the Wagner function is used for determination of aerodynamic loading on the wing. Combining these two types of formulation yields nonlinear integro-differentials aeroelastic equations. Using the Galerkin’s method and a mode summation technique, the governing equations will be solved by introducing a numerical method without the need to adding any aerodynamic state space variables and the corresponding equations related to these variables of the problem. The obtained equations are solved to predict the aeroelastic response of the problem. The obtained results for a test case are compared with those of some other works and show a good agreement between results.     

扑翼飞行器带翼刀机翼气动特性实验研究

通过进行微型扑翼飞行器低速风洞试验,研究了带弯度机翼下翼面翼刀对扑翼飞行器升阻特性的影响。文中进行了带翼刀机翼和不带翼刀机翼在不同迎角下的风洞吹风试验。试验结果表明,带翼刀机翼升力系数大于不带翼刀机翼升力系数,从而证明了翼刀可以阻止机翼下表面气流展向流动,起到增加机翼升力的作用。当扑翼在小迎角飞行时,带翼刀机翼可以有效地提高扑翼的气动效率,改善扑翼的飞行性能。研究结果可为带翼刀机翼在扑翼飞行器上的应用提供技术支持。     

Numerical simulation of a flapping four-wing micro-aerial vehicle

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of a four-wing (two wings on each side, one on top of another) flapping micro-aerial vehicle (FMAV), known as the Delfly micro, is performed using an immersed boundary method Navier–Stokes finite volume solver at Reynolds numbers of 5500 (forward flight condition). The objective of the present investigation is to gain an insight to the aerodynamics of flapping wing biplane configuration, by making an analysis on a geometry that is simplified, yet captures the major aspects of the wing behavior. The fractional step method is used to solve the Navier–Stokes equations. Results show that in comparison to the Delfly II flapping kinematics (a similar FMAV configuration but smaller flapping stroke angles), the Delfly-Micro flapping kinematics provides more thrust while maintaining the same efficiency. The Delfly-Micro biplane configuration generates more lift than expected when the inclination angle increases, due to the formation of a uniform leading edge vortex. Estimates of the lift produced in the forward flight conditions confirm that in the current design, the MAV is able to sustain forward flight. The potential effect of wing flexibility on the aerodynamic performance in the biplane configuration context is investigated through prescribed flexibility in the simulations. Increasing the wing׳ spanwise flexibility increases thrust but increasing chordwise flexibility causes thrust to first increase and then decrease. Moreover, combining both spanwise and chordwise flexibility outperforms cases with only either spanwise or chordwise flexibility.     

高速小展弦比机翼颤振的微分求积法分析

引入微分求积法,分析高速小展弦比机翼的气动弹性问题。将小展弦比机翼等效为悬臂板,基于一阶活塞气动力理论建立机翼颤振偏微分方程,采用微分求积法将偏微分方程转化为常微分方程,根据频率重合理论对颤振问题进行求解。分析了机翼的固有频率及颤振速度,并与有限元软件计算结果进行比较,误差在2％以内,很好的验证了微分求积法求解小展弦比机翼颤振问题的有效性。分析了机翼面积、展弦比及厚度对颤振速度的影响,结果表明,小展弦比机翼的颤振速度受结构尺寸的影响较大,颤振速度随面积和展弦比的增大而减小,随机翼厚度的增大而增大。     

Static Finite Element Validation of a Flexible Micro Air Vehicle

The flexible-wing approach has proven to be a successful method for designing micro air vehicles. The wing’s passive deformation under wind loads can allow for gust rejection, delayed stall, or improved longitudinal stability. As such, an accurate structural model of the flexible wing can provide greater understanding of the aforementioned phenomena. This paper seeks to formulate a static finite element wing model, with a particular emphasis on accuracy. The wing is broken into three different types of elements: beams, plates, and membranes. Individual element types are characterized and validated by constructing simple structures from the appropriate material, and then comparing experimental and numerical deformation fields. Experimental results are found through a visual image correlation system. The elements are then combined to form the complete wing model, which is also validated through experiments. The resulting finite element model is found to be very accurate, able to predict the complicated structural response of a composite wing. Due to observations made during standard wind tunnel testing, the structural response of a typical membrane MAV wing in steady level pre-stall flight is thought to be quasi-static. As such, the finite element model formulated in this work will be indispensable towards future numerical static aeroelastic optimization research efforts aimed at improving the efficiency, agility, and sensitivity of practical micro air vehicles.     

高速飞行器中空翼结构高温热振动特性试验研究

远程高速飞行器飞行速度快, 滞空时间长, 飞行过程中翼、舵等结构会出现长时间的剧烈振动, 由气动加热产生的高温还会使飞行器材料和结构的弹性性能发生变化, 从而引起翼、舵等结构振动特性的改变.因此获得高温与振动复合环境下的远程高速飞行器翼、舵等结构的振动特性参数对于高速飞行器的安全设计具有非常重要的意义.将高温热环境试验系统与振动试验系统相结合, 在对中空翼面结构进行振动激励的同时使用红外辐射加热方式对翼面结构生成可控的热环境, 并通过自行设计的耐高温引伸装置将中空翼结构的振动信号传递到非高温区进行数据采集与分析的方式, 实现了高达800℃~900℃的力热复合环境下的翼结构固有频率、模态等振动特性参数的试验测试, 其试验结果为远程高速飞行器中空翼结构在高温振动环境下的动特性分析和安全可靠性设计提供了重要依据.     

Optimal speed of hypersonic cruise flight

A coupling frame of speed gain and maintain was suggested to assess the flight performance of hypersonic cruise vehicles (HCV). The optimal cruise speed was obtained by analyzing the flight performance measured by the ratio of initial boost mass to generalized payload. The performance of HCVs based on rockets and air-breathing ramjets was studied and compared to that of a minimum-energy ballistic trajectory under a certain flight distance. It is concluded that rocket-based HCVs flying at the optimal speed are a very competitive choice at the current stage.     

Aerodynamic improvement of a delta wing in combination with leading edge flaps

Recently, various studies of micro air vehicle(MAV) and unmanned air vehicle(UAV) have been reported from wide range points of view. The aim of this study is to research the aerodynamic improvement of delta wing in low Reynold's number region to develop an applicative these air vehicle. As an attractive tool in delta wing, leading edge flap(LEF) is employed to directly modify the strength and structure of vortices originating from the separation point along the leading edge. Various configurations of LEF such as drooping apex flap and upward deflected flap are used in combination to enhance the aerodynamic characteristics in the delta wing. The fluid force measurement by six component load cell and particle image velocimetry(PIV) analysis are performed as the experimental method. The relations between the aerodynamic superiority and the vortex behavior around the models are demonstrated.     

涡波一体乘波飞行器宽速域气动优化设计研究

涡波一体宽速域乘波飞行器通过在低速引入涡效应,显著改善了传统乘波体在低速状态下的升阻特性,具有在未来宽速域空天飞行器总体气动设计当中得到广泛应用的巨大潜力.但是,该设计方法的研究尚不完善,特别是在基准流场建立过程中忽略了三维效应、低速效应、黏性效应以及头部/前缘的钝化效应,因此其高低速气动特性均有优化设计的空间.针对此问题,本文结合高保真RANS求解器、自由变形参数化方法、鲁棒的结构网格变形方法、离散伴随方法以及序列二次规划算法,发展了基于离散伴随的宽速域飞行器气动优化设计方法.基于上述方法,针对涡波一体乘波飞行器开展了兼顾低速与高超声速气动性能的三维整机气动优化设计研究,获得了宽速域优化构型并对其进行了流动机理分析.结果表明,相较于初始构型,宽速域优化构型可以将飞行器高超声速状态下升阻特性略微提升的同时,显著增强低速状态飞行器背风面的旋涡效应,进而使飞行器低速状态的升力和升阻比均提升10%以上,改善了涡波一体宽速域乘波飞行器的高低速气动性能.     

Multiplicity of steady solutions in a two-sided lid-driven cavity with different aspect ratios

This study presents a continuation method to calculate flow bifurcation in a two-sided lid-driven cavity with different aspect ratios for anti-parallel motion. In anti-parallel motion, the top and bottom walls of the cavity move in opposite directions simultaneously, while the two walls both moving to the right give parallel motion at the same speed. Comprehensive bifurcation diagrams of the cavity flows with different aspect ratios of the cavities are derived via Keller’s continuation method, and linear- stability analysis is used to identify the nature of the various flow solutions. The Reynolds number (1 ≤ Re ≤ 1,200) is used as the continuation parameter to trace the solution curves. In anti-parallel motion, the evolution of the bifurcation diagrams in cases with different aspect ratios (1 ≤ AR ≤ 2.5) is illustrated. Two stable symmetric flows and one stable asymmetric flow are identified, and the existent regions of the stable flows in the aspect ratios and Reynolds numbers are distinguished. The newly found asymmetric flow state can be obtained at a high aspect ratio and a low Reynolds number.     

Unsteady aerodynamic forces and power requirements of a bumblebee in forward flight

Aerodynamic forces and power requirements in forward flight in a bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) were studied using the method of computational fluid dynamics. Actual wing kinematic data of free flight were used in the study (the speed ranges from 0 m/s to 4.5 m/s; advance ratio ranges from 0–0.66). The bumblebee employs the delayed stall mechanism and the fast pitching-up rotation mechanism to produce vertical force and thrust. The leading-edge vortex does not shed in the translatory phase of the half-strokes and is much more concentrated than that of the fruit fly in a previous study. At hovering and low-speed flight, the vertical force is produced by both the half-strokes and is contributed by wing lift; at medium and high speeds, the vertical force is mainly produced during the downstroke and is contributed by both wing lift and wing drag. At all speeds the thrust is mainly produced in the upstroke and is contributed by wing drag. The power requirement at low to medium speeds is not very different from that of hovering and is relatively large at the highest speed (advance ratio 0.66), i.e. the power curve is J-shaped. Except at the highest flight speed, storing energy elastically can save power up to 20%–30%. At the highest speed, because of the large increase of aerodynamic torque and the slight decrease of inertial torque (due to the smaller stroke amplitude and stroke frequency used), the power requirement is dominated by aerodynamic power and the effect of elastic storage of energy on power requirement is limited.The project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (10232010) and the National Aeronautic Science fund of China (03A51049)The English text was polished by Xing Zhang.     

超高温、大热流、非线性气动热环境试验模拟及测试技术研究

超高温、大热流、非线性气动热环境试验模拟技术及相应的极端高温环境力学测试技术,是高超声速飞行器防热材料和结构安全设计中事关研制成败的关键技术。本文介绍了自行研制的可实现高至210℃/s的极快非线性升温速率、能够生成高达2MW/m2的瞬态非线性热流密度、实现高达1500℃超高温氧化热环境的石英灯红外辐射式气动热环境试验模拟系统。基于这一性能优越的超高温气动热环境试验模拟系统,发展了如下超高温热环境力学测试技术:1)提出对环境光变化不敏感的主动成像数字图像相关方法,实现了C/SiC复合材料1550℃高温变形的非接触、全场光学测量;2)发展了1400℃超高温热/力联合试验环境下SiC/SiC复合材料结构的断裂特性试验测试技术。本文还简要介绍了高速巡航导弹翼面结构900℃高温热振联合试验,950℃高温非线性热环境下的蜂窝结构隔热性试验等研究内容。本文所发展的超高温气动热环境试验模拟技术和高温热环境力学测试技术,对航天航空领域高超声速飞行器的研制具有重要的军事工程应用价值。     

考虑结构失稳特征的复合材料机翼气动弹性优化设计

从工程数学求解和有限元分析角度对复合材料结构的稳定性分析方法进行研究,基于这两个方面分别建立了同时考虑壁板稳定性约束和气动弹性约 束的气动弹性优化技术,并以大展弦比复合材料机翼为对象,进行气动弹性综合优化设计。研究表明,机翼气动弹性优化中若不考虑稳定性约束条件,虽然可以获得较小结构重量,但往往不满足稳定性要求;相比从有限元角度考虑结构失稳特征的气动弹性综合优化设计方法,通过工程数学方法对机翼结构进行分区失稳分析优化可以更加精准地控制变量,在满足各项性能指标,特别是稳定性约束的同时,进一步减轻了结构重量,提高了结构失稳因子。     

AEROELASTIC OPTIMIZATION DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WING WITH CONSIDERATION OF STRUCTURAL INSTABILITY

从工程数学求解和有限元分析角度对复合材料结构的稳定性分析方法进行研究,基于这两个方面分别建立了同时考虑壁板稳定性约束和气动弹性约 束的气动弹性优化技术,并以大展弦比复合材料机翼为对象,进行气动弹性综合优化设计。研究表明,机翼气动弹性优化中若不考虑稳定性约束条件,虽然可以获得较小结构重量,但往往不满足稳定性要求;相比从有限元角度考虑结构失稳特征的气动弹性综合优化设计方法,通过工程数学方法对机翼结构进行分区失稳分析优化可以更加精准地控制变量,在满足各项性能指标,特别是稳定性约束的同时,进一步减轻了结构重量,提高了结构失稳因子。     

Aerodynamic mechanism of forces generated by twisting model-wing in bat flapping flight

The aerodynamic mechanism of the bat wing membrane Mong the lateral border of its body is studied. The twist-morphing that alters the angle of attack （AOA） along the span-wise direction is observed widely during bat flapping flight. An assumption is made that the linearly distributed AOA is along the span-wise direction. The plate with the aspect ratio of 3 is used to model a bat wing. A three-dimensional （3D） unsteady panel method is used to predict the aerodynamic forces generated by the flapping plate with leading edge separation. It is found that, relative to the rigid wing flapping, twisting motion can increase the averaged lift by as much as 25% and produce thrust instead of drag. Furthermore, the aerodynamic forces （lift/drag） generated by a twisting plate-wing are similar to those of a pitching rigid-wing, meaning that the twisting in bat flight has the same function as the supination/pronation motion in insect flight.     

基于流形切空间插值的折叠翼参数化气动弹性建模

变体飞行器的气动弹性力学建模是当前先进飞行器设计的研究热点和难点.然而传统的气动弹性动力学建模方法对于具有结构参变特性的变体飞行器气动弹性力学研究存在建模效率低、计算复杂等问题.本研究提出了一种基于流形切空间插值的可折叠式变体机翼参数化气动弹性建模方法.首先,该方法建立若干个典型折叠角下的折叠翼结构有限元模型,通过流形...     

Distinctive features of the flow past high-speed flight vehicles with air-breathing engines on subsonic,transonic, and low supersonic velocity ranges

The aerodynamic characteristics and distinctive features of the flow past hypersonic integral-layout flight vehicles with air-breathing engines intended for cruise flight in the atmosphere are experimentally investigated. The experiments were conducted on a simplified model designed with regard for the general principles of integration of vehicles of the class considered. The tests were performed in a wind tunnel over the Mach and Reynolds number ranges 0.6 ≤ M ≤ 4 and 6.3 × 10⁶ ≤ Re ≤ 16 × 10⁶, respectively. Balance testing was carried out, the pressure distributions over the vehicle surface were measured, and the flowfields on the model surface were photographed. The effects of mounting a nacelle and contouring the internal duct are considered. The effect of the corrections on the duct flow in the absence of jet modeling is estimated. The results obtained can be used as a basis for developing the aerodynamic configurations of integral-layout flight vehicles, for forming their thrust and aerodynamic parameters under full-scale flight conditions, and for testing computation methods.     

生物运动仿生力学与智能微型飞行器

概述了微型飞行器研究与发展现状,分析了实用化面临的主要技术关键,重点讨论了低雷诺数空气动力学、高升阻比气动布局、智能控制等问题．已有的经验和理论分析表明：主尺度小于15cm以后,用常规方法已经很难设计出具有良好飞行性能的微型飞行器,而必须采用仿生学方法．对微型飞行器仿生学设计中的一些主要问题,包括高升力、高机动性、抗干扰稳定性以及飞行过程的力能学分析等问题分别进行了讨论。