Kinetic model for supercritical water gasification of algae

The article reports the first quantitative kinetics model for supercritical water gasification (SCWG) of real biomass (algae) that describes the formation of the individual gaseous products. The phenomenological model is based on a set of reaction pathways that includes two types of compounds being intermediate between the algal biomass and the final gaseous products. To best correlate the experimental gas yields obtained at 450, 500 and 550 °C, the model allowed one type of intermediate to react to gases more quickly than the other type of intermediate. The model parameters indicate that gas yields increase with temperature because higher temperatures favor production of the more easily gasified intermediate and the production of gas at the expense of char. The model can accurately predict the qualitative influence of the biomass loading and water density on the gas yields. Sensitivity analysis and reaction rate analysis indicate that steam reforming of intermediates is an important source of H(2), whereas direct decomposition of the intermediate species is the main source of CO, CO(2) and CH(4).     

CaO对褐煤在超临界水中制取富氢气体的影响

以褐煤在超临界水中制取富氢气体为目的,利用小型高压间歇反应装置,在Ca/C 摩尔比为0～0.60、温度450℃～680℃、压力23MPa～38MPa和停留1min～30min下,考察了小龙潭褐煤的反应特性。研究表明,CaO不仅可以固定气相中的CO2,提高H2的体积分数,而且可以提高碳转化率和气体产率。600℃、28MPa,Ca/C摩尔比为0.42时,气相产物中的CO2趋于完全固定,H2产率比无添加剂时提高2.5倍,H2体积分数为48％,其余为CH4和烃类气体。升高反应温度使CaO的催化作用更为显著, 碳转化率和气体产率（H2、CH4、烃类气体）随着反应温度的升高而逐渐增加,液相收率减少。增大反应压力可以促使煤转化率和气体产率升高,停留时间对反应的影响相对较小。以900℃热解焦为反应原料进行了气化实验,结果表明,在600℃和650℃反应5min后,碳转化率分别为8.6％和12.5％,CaO对气化反应和甲烷化反应起不同程度的催化作用。     

On-line mass spectrometric analysis of hydrothermal reactions for biomass model sample containing sulfur compounds

Biomass gasification using supercritical water is a promising way to produce hydrogen gas. However, this method might release toxic heteroatomic compounds. It is therefore important to clarify reaction pathways for efficiently obtaining hydrogen gas and suppressing environmental burden. L-cysteine was adopted for a test reagent containing sulfur and determination of the sulfur compound reaction pathways was studied by Li⁺-ion attachment mass spectrometry. It was found that H₂S, CO, CO₂, SO, SO₂ and SO₃ gasses were released at high concentrations in the gas phase during the hydrothermal reaction. By adding Ca(OH)₂ as alkali, the pathway of these gasses were, however, suppressed into the liquid phase so that the toxic emissions to the gas phase could be avoided.     

煤气化动力学模型研究

煤的气化动力学是煤气化技术研究开发和模型化的基础 ,对实现煤的高效利用具有重要指导意义。目前 ,有关煤气化动力学的模型很多 ,但还未见有将这些模型进行详细的分析与比较的文章。本文总结了目前常用的煤气化动力学模型 ,提出了两种新的半经验模型 ;并运用这些模型处理了彬县、神木、王封煤的气化数据。通过各模型的相关系数及对各模型进行的分析与比较发现 ,所提出的下述煤气化动力学模型简单、适用、精度高。dxdt=k0 ynH2 O exp( EaRT) (1 x) m ,m =a bT　　在模型中 ,把m定义为煤种与温度的函数。此模型不但能有效地描述气化过程 ,同时它还能很好地描述煤气化在不同温度下的不同阶段性。     

Reactions of [Et(4)N](3)[Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(4)] with Alkyl Halides and Dihalides: Formation of the Alkyl- and the Dialkylantimony-Iron Carbonyl Complexes

The reactions of [Et(4)N](3)[Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(4)] (1) with RX (R = Me, Et, n-Pr; X = I) in MeCN form the monoalkylated antimony complexes [Et(4)N](2)[RSb{Fe(CO)(4)}(3)] (R = Me, 2; R = Et, 4; R = n-Pr, 6) and the dialkylated antimony clusters [Et(4)N][R(2)Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(2)] (R = Me, 3; R = Et, 5; R = n-Pr, 7), respectively. When [Et(4)N](3)[Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(4)] reacts with i-PrI, only the monoalkylated antimony complex [Et(4)N](2)[i-PrSb{Fe(CO)(4)}(3)] (8) is obtained. The mixed dialkylantimony complex [Et(4)N][MeEtSb{Fe(CO)(4)}(2)] (9) also can be synthesized from the reaction of 2 with EtI. While the reaction with Br(CH(2))(2)Br produces [Et(4)N](2)[BrSb{Fe(CO)(4)}(3)] (10), treatment with Cl(CH(2))(3)Br forms the monoalkylated product [Et(4)N](2)[Cl(CH(2))(3)Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(3)] (11) and a dialkylated novel antimony-iron complex [Et(4)N][{&mgr;-(CH(2))(3)}Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(3)] (12). On the other hand, the reaction with Br(CH(2))(4)Br forms the monoalkylated antimony product and the dialkylated antimony complex [Et(4)N][{&mgr;-(CH(2))(4)}Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(2)] (13). Complexes 2-13 are characterized by spectroscopic methods or/and X-ray analyses. On the basis of these analyses, the core of the monoalkyl clusters consists of a central antimony atom tetrahedrally bonded to one alkyl group and three Fe(CO)(4) fragments and the dialkyl products are structurally similar to the monoalkyl clusters, with the central antimony bonded to two alkyl groups and two Fe(CO)(4) moieties in each case. The dialkyl complex 3 crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P2(1)/c with a = 13.014(8) ?, b = 11.527(8) ?, c = 17.085(5) ?, beta = 105.04(3) degrees, V = 2475(2) ?(3), and Z = 4. Crystals of 12 are orthorhombic, of space group Pbca, with a = 14.791(4) ?, b = 15.555(4) ?, c = 27.118(8) ?, V = 6239(3) ?(3), and Z = 8. The anion of cluster 12 exhibits a central antimony atom bonded to three Fe(CO)(4) fragments with a -(CH(2))(3)- group bridging between the Sb atom and one Fe(CO)(4) fragment. This paper discusses the details of the reactions of [Et(4)N](3)[Sb{Fe(CO)(4)}(4)] with a series of alkyl halides and dihalides. These reactions basically proceed via a novel double-alkylation pathway, and this facile methodology can as well provide a convenient route to a series of alkylated antimony-iron carbonyl clusters.     

Substitution reactions of [Ru(dppe)(CO)(H(2)O)(3)][OTf](2)

The labile nature of the coordinated water ligands in the organometallic aqua complex [Ru(dppe)(CO)(H(2)O)(3)][OTf](2) (1) (dppe = Ph(2)PCH(2)CH(2)PPh(2); OTf = OSO(2)CF(3)) has been investigated through substitution reactions with a range of incoming ligands. Dissolution of 1 in acetonitrile or dimethyl sulfoxide results in the facile displacement of all three waters to give [Ru(dppe)(CO)(CH(3)CN)(3)][OTf](2) (2) and [Ru(dppe)(CO)(DMSO)(3)][OTf](2) (3), respectively. Similarly, 1 reacts with Me(3)CNC to afford [Ru(dppe)(CO)(CNCMe(3))(3)][OTf](2) (4). Addition of 1 equiv of 2,2'-bipyridyl (bpy) or 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridyl (Me(2)bpy) to acetone/water solutions of 1 initially yields [Ru(dppe)(CO)(H(2)O)(bpy)][OTf](2) (5a) and [Ru(dppe)(CO)(H(2)O)(Me(2)bpy)][OTf](2) (6a), in which the coordinated water lies trans to CO. Compounds 5a and 6a rapidly rearrange to isomeric species (5b, 6b) in which the ligated water is trans to dppe. Further reactivity has been demonstrated for 6b, which, upon dissolution in CDCl(3), loses water and coordinates a triflate anion to afford [Ru(dppe)(CO)(OTf)(Me(2)bpy)][OTf] (7). Reaction of 1 with CH(3)CH(2)CH(2)SH gives the dinuclear bridging thiolate complex [[(dppe)Ru(CO)](2)(mu-SCH(2)CH(2)CH(3))(3)][OTf] (8). The reaction of 1 with CO in acetone/water is slow and yields the cationic hydride complex [Ru(dppe)(CO)(3)H][OTf] (9) via a water gas shift reaction. Moreover, the same mechanism can also be used to account for the previously reported synthesis of 1 upon reaction of Ru(dppe)(CO)(2)(OTf)(2) with water (Organometallics 1999, 18, 4068).     

氧化钙催化煤温和气化研究

报道了神木煤在小型流不反应器中,于４５０～７５０℃温度内,用ＣａＯ催化煤温和气化的研究。结果表明：添加ＣａＯ后,气体和半焦产率增加,焦油产率减少;ＣａＯ粒子对煤温和气化生成的焦裂解具有明显催化作用;可以明显增加气相中Ｈ２、ＣＨ４、Ｃ１～Ｃ５产率,降低半焦中Ｈ／Ｃ比,ＣａＯ还具有明显的固硫和固ＣＯ２作用,最后,推测了煤温和气化中ＣａＯ催化裂解多环芳烃侧链的机理。     

煤与甲烷共转化过程中煤焦二氧化碳气化动力学研究

以煤与甲烷共转化为背景,运用热重方法进行了由煤焦、甲烷和二氧化碳组成的共转化反应体系中碳的反应动力学研究。在1173K~1273K考察了温度对碳转化的影响。结果表明,该反应体系中碳的表观反应速率比煤焦的纯二氧化碳气化速率慢一倍左右,且表观上碳不能完全被气化。通过改变甲烷和二氧化碳的比例考察了气相组成变化对共转化反应中碳转化速率的影响,发现甲烷浓度的增加和二氧化碳浓度的减少都会降低碳的转化速率,且随着甲烷浓度的增加,表观上碳最终所能达到的转化率也会降低。通过数据分析发现,该反应适合采用均相反应模型进行描述,关联得到其表观活化能为312.4kJ/mol,甲烷的反应级数为-0.13,二氧化碳的反应级数为0.3。     

Tautomerization of methyldiazene to formaldehyde-hydrazone in ruthenium and osmium complexes

Mixed-ligand hydrazine complexes [M(CO)(RNHNH2)P4](BPh4)2 (1, 2) [M = Ru, Os; R = H, CH3, C6H5; P = P(OEt)3] with carbonyl and triethyl phosphite were prepared by allowing hydride [MH(CO)P4]BPh4 species to react first with HBF4.Et2O and then with hydrazines. Depending on the nature of the hydrazine ligand, the oxidation of [M(CO)(RNHNH2)P4](BPh4)2 derivatives with Pb(OAc)4 at -30 C gives acetate [M(kappa1-OCOCH3)(CO)P4]BPh4 (3a), phenyldiazene [M(CO)(C6H5N=NH)P4](BPh4)2 (3c, 4c), and methyldiazene [M(CO)(CH3N=NH)P4](BPh4)2 (3b, 4b) derivatives. Methyldiazene complexes 3b and 4b undergo base-catalyzed tautomerization of the CH3N=NH ligand to formaldehyde-hydrazone NH2N=CH2, giving the [M(CO)(NH2N=CH2)P4](BPh4)2 (5, 6) derivatives. Complexes 5 and 6 were characterized spectroscopically and by the X-ray crystal structure determination of the [Ru(CO)(NH2N=CH2)[P(OEt)3]4](BPh4)2 (5) derivative. Acetone-hydrazone [M(CO)[NH2N=C(CH3)2]P4](BPh4)2 (7, 8) complexes were also prepared by allowing hydrazine [M(CO)(NH2NH2)P4](BPh4)2 derivatives to react with acetone.     

Gasification reaction of organic compounds catalyzed by RuO2 in supercritical water

Nearly complete gasification of organic compounds has been achieved by stoichiometrically insufficient amounts of RuO2 in supercritical water (SCW) to provide CH4, CO2 and H2, all the hydrogen atoms of which originate from water, and the catalytic effect of RuO2 results from a redox couple of Ru(IV)/Ru(II) induced by SCW.     

中度气化煤焦异相还原NO机理

采用量子化学密度泛函理论结合热力学和动力学研究了中度气化的锯齿形煤焦异相还原NO的反应机理。分析了中度气化煤焦异相还原NO的反应路径、异相还原过程中的能量变化以及热力学和动力学分析。结果表明,中度气化煤焦更易于NO的吸附,IM2→IM3的开环过程为整个反应的决速步,所需克服能垒最大（398.03 kJ/mol）。中度气化煤焦异相还原NO的反应在煤燃烧系统中为可自发的放热反应,且为单向反应。根据决速步理论,反应的进行需克服较大活化能（389.83 kJ/mol）,同时根据阿伦尼乌斯公式,总体反应速率受温度影响较大,温度越高反应速率越快,越利于NO还原。     

Water compatibility and organic transformations of organo-Zintl deltahedral clusters

We report the remarkable stability of di-substituted organo-Zintl deltahedral clusters in the presence of water. This has been exploited in a reaction at the organic substituents of the cluster which produces water as a by-product. Also reported are the synthesis, characterization, and crystal structure of [K-krypt](2)[Ge(9)-(CH=CH-CH(2)NH(2))(2)] involved in the reaction.     

Current and Foreseeable Applications of Supercritical Water for Energy and the Environment

It is crucial to develop economical and energy-efficient processes for the sustainable transformation of biomass into fuels and chemicals. In this context, supercritical water biomass valorization (SCBV) processes are an alternative way to produce biogas, biofuels, and valuable chemicals. Supercritical water technology has seen much progress over the last fifteen years and an industrial application has merged: the supercritical water oxidation of wastes. The evolution from lab-scale to pilot-scale facilities has provided data on reaction mechanisms, kinetics, modeling, and reactor technology as well as an important know-how, which can now be exploited to use the reactivity in supercritical water to transform biomass into gases (CO, H₂, CO₂, CH₄, and N₂) or into liquids (liquid fuel and valuable chemicals) with the supercritical water biomass gasification and liquefaction processes, respectively. This Review highlights the potential of SCBV processes to transform biomass into gas and liquid energy sources and highlights the developments that are still necessary to push this technology onto the market.     

随机孔模型应用于煤焦与CO2气化的动力学研究

考察970 ℃～1 165 ℃，北宿、神府、忻州、潞安煤焦与CO2在热天平中的气化反应，用恒温法进行热重分析，考察煤种、气化温度、灰分对煤焦气化的影响。用随机孔模型模拟北宿煤反应速率与碳转化率的关系曲线，与未反应芯缩核模型和混合模型模拟结果比较。在化学控制区内，实验数据用随机孔模型拟合最佳。1 066 ℃和1 165 ℃气化数据拟合的相关系数为0.99，970 ℃拟合效果较差。随机孔模型作为简单、精度高的模型可应用于煤炭气化反应中。应用此模型计算四种煤焦反应活化能、指前因子、孔结构参数、A0等动力学参数值。同一煤种气化反应温度越高初始反应速率越大，结构参数体现了孔结构变化对反应的影响，随着温度的升高值减小。     

玉米芯水解残渣热解焦气化反应性研究

利用热重分析仪研究了玉米芯及其酸水解残渣热解焦的气化反应性,重点考察了热解温度、升温速率、气化温度和气化介质(CO₂、H₂O)对残渣热解焦气化反应性的影响,并借助SEM观测了热解焦的表观形貌。结果表明,残渣热解焦的气化反应性较玉米芯热解焦有所下降;在热解温度550~850 ℃,残渣热解焦的气化反应性随热解温度提高而降低,在热解升温速率0.1 K/s下制取的热解焦,其气化反应性低于15.0 K/s下的热解焦;在气化温度850~950 ℃,提高气化反应温度和使用水蒸气作为气化介质能显著提高残渣热解焦的气化反应性;采用混合反应模型计算了残渣热解焦的气化反应动力学参数。     

氧化反应对胜利褐煤水蒸气气化反应的促进作用Ⅱ.作用机理研究

在φ80×3 000 mm耐高温不锈钢管反应器中,进行了N2/N2+O2/N2+H2O/N2+O2+H2O气氛下800和900℃的胜利褐煤气化实验,采用红外光谱、X射线光电子能谱、拉曼光谱和烟气在线分析等研究了添加氧气前后半焦的物理结构、官能团及煤气组成的变化,旨在探讨氧化反应促进水蒸气气化反应的作用机理。结果表明,氧化反应对水蒸气气化反应的促进作用可用半焦的微观结构变化和水蒸气气化解离吸附机理解释。氧化反应的开孔和扩孔作用使碳颗粒微孔数量、比表面积、孔容、吸附量明显增加,更多的碳表面活性位暴露出来,也促进了半焦中甲基、亚甲基、C=O键、C-O键的断裂和高活性的羧基COO-和大量氢自由基的生成,这些都有利于水蒸气气化反应的进行,尤其在高温和水蒸气含量较高时。同时,氧气的加入改变了反应气氛中CO2、CO、H2相对含量和水蒸气分子/活性炭原子内能,也有利于水蒸气气化反应的进行,这与水蒸气气化解离吸附机理相吻合。     

Ansa versus spiro substitution of cyclophosphazenes: is fluorination essential for ansa to spiro transformation of cyclophosphazenes?

Fluorinated ansa substituted cyclophosphazenes endo-FcCH(2)P(S)(CH(2)O)(2)[P(F)N](2)(F(2)PN) [Fc = ferrocenyl] (1) and exo-FcCH(2)P(S)(CH(2)O)(2)[P(F)N](2)(F(2)PN) (2) readily transform to the spirocyclic compound [FcCH(2)P(S)(CH(2)O)(2)PN](F(2)PN)(2) (3) not only in the presence of CsF but also with non-fluorinated bases such as Cs(2)CO(3), K(2)CO(3), KOBu(t), Et(3)N, DABCO, DBN, and DBU. The analogous tetrachloro ansa compound exo-FcCH(2)P(S)(CH(2)O)(2)[P(Cl)N](2)(Cl(2)PN) (5), however, did not transform to the chlorinated spiro compound (6) in the presence of these bases. With excess of CsF, P-Cl bonds of 5 were found to undergo fluorination leading to the formation of 2, which transformed to spirocyclic compound 3. Time dependent (31)P NMR spectroscopy was used to monitor this transformation. Crystal structure studies on the ansa substituted compounds 4 and 5 have shown weak bonding interactions involving C-H...Cl, C-H...O, and C-H...S interactions.     

Iron carbonyl sulfides, formaldehyde, and amines condense to give the proposed azadithiolate cofactor of the Fe-only hydrogenases

The azadithiolate (SCH2NHCH2S) cofactor proposed to occur in the Fe-only hydrogenases forms efficiently by the condensation of Fe2(SH)2(CO)6 (1), formaldehyde, and ammonia (as (NH4)2CO3). The resulting Fe2[(SCH2)2NH](CO)6 reacts with Et4NCN to give (Et4N)2[Fe2[(SCH2)2NH](CO)4(CN)2], for which crystallographic characterization confirmed an axial N-H and an elongated C-S bond of 1.858(3) A. Primary amines RNH2 (R = Ph, t-Bu) also participate in the condensation reaction, and Fe3S2(CO)9 can be employed in place of 1. Mechanistically, the Fe2[(SCH2)2NH] moiety is shown to arise via two pathways: (i) via the intermediacy of Fe2[(SCH2OH)2](CO)6, which was detected and shown to react with amines, and (ii) via the reaction of 1 with cyclic imines (CH2)3(NR)3 (R = Ph, Me). The reaction of 1 with (CH2)6N4 (hexamethylenetetramine) gives Fe2[(SCH2)2NH](CO)6. Trace amounts of Fe2[(SCH2)2N-t-Bu](CO)6 arise via the reaction of aqueous FeSO4, formaldehyde, NaSH, and t-BuNH2 under an atmosphere of CO.     

天然铁矿石为氧载体的生物质化学链气化制合成气实验研究

在一个小型鼓泡流化床反应器上以Ar气为流化介质,对以天然铁矿石为氧载体的生物质化学链气化制合成气过程进行了研究。考察了反应温度对合成气组分、气体产率、碳转化率以及气化效率的影响,反应时间对合成气组分的影响;探讨了氧载体存在对生物质气化过程的影响。结果表明,天然铁矿石可以作为生物质化学链气化制合成气反应过程的氧载体,代替富氧空气或高温水蒸气作为生物质气化的气化剂;随着温度的升高,产物气体中CO、H₂的浓度逐渐增加,CO₂、CH₄浓度缓慢降低;随着反应时间的延长,合成气中H₂、CO、CH₄的相对浓度缓慢增加,而CO₂相对浓度逐渐降低;氧载体的存在能显著提高气体产率和碳的转化率及气化效率。扫描电镜-能谱(SEM-EDS)分析表明,当超过850 ℃时,铁矿石氧载体颗粒表面烧结现象明显,但反应前后,颗粒表面的成分及含量基本保持不变。     

Synthetic and structural studies on [Fe2(SR)2(CN)x(CO)6-x](x-) as active site models for Fe-only hydrogenases.

A series of models for the active site (H-cluster) of the iron-only hydrogenase enzymes (Fe-only H2-ases) were prepared. Treatment of MeCN solutions of Fe2(SR)2(CO)6 with 2 equiv of Et4NCN gave [Fe2(SR)2(CN)2(CO)4](2-) compounds. IR spectra of the dicyanides feature four nu(CO) bands between 1965 and 1870 cm(-1) and two nu(CN) bands at 2077 and 2033 cm(-1). For alkyl derivatives, both diequatorial and axial-equatorial isomers were observed by NMR analysis. Also prepared were a series of dithiolate derivatives (Et4N)2[Fe2(SR)2(CN)2(CO)4], where (SR)2 = S(CH2)2S, S(CH2)3S. Reaction of Et4NCN with Fe2(S-t-Bu)2(CO)6 gave initially [Fe2(S-t-Bu)2(CN)2(CO)4](2-), which comproportionated to give [Fe2(S-t-Bu)2(CN)(CO)5](-). The mechanism of the CN(-)-for-CO substitution was probed as follows: (i) excess CN(-) with a 1:1 mixture of Fe2(SMe)2(CO)6 and Fe2(SC6H4Me)2(CO)6 gave no mixed thiolates, (ii) treatment of Fe2(S2C3H6)(CO)6 with Me3NO followed by Et4NCN gave (Et4N)[Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)(CO)5], which is a well-behaved salt, (iii) treatment of Fe2(S2C3H6)(CO)6 with Et4NCN in the presence of excess PMe3 gave (Et4N)[Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)(CO)4(PMe3)] much more rapidly than the reaction of PMe3 with (Et4N)[Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)(CO)5], and (iv) a competition experiment showed that Et4NCN reacts with Fe2(S2C3H6)(CO)6 more rapidly than with (Et4N)[Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)(CO)5]. Salts of [Fe2(SR)2(CN)2(CO)4](2-) (for (SR)2 = (SMe)2 and S2C2H4) and the monocyanides [Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)(CO)5](-) and [Fe2(S-t-Bu)2(CN)(CO)5](-) were characterized crystallographically; in each case, the Fe-CO distances were approximately 10% shorter than the Fe-CN distances. The oxidation potentials for Fe2(S2C3H6)(CO)4L2 become milder for L = CO, followed by MeNC, PMe3, and CN(-); the range is approximately 1.3 V. In water,oxidation of [Fe2(S2C3H6)(CN)2(CO)4](2-) occurs irreversibly at -0.12 V (Ag/AgCl) and is coupled to a second oxidation.