Three-dimensional laryngeal flow fields induced by a model vocal fold polyp

Pathological laryngeal flow fields are investigated in a dynamically-driven, scaled-up model of the vocal folds. Disruption of the flow field due to the presence of a geometric protuberance, representative of a sessile unilateral polyp, is investigated in both the streamwise and transverse flow directions using phase-averaged particle image velocimetry. It is shown that the protuberance disrupts the normal flow behavior of the glottal jet throughout the phonatory cycle. During the divergent portions of the glottal cycle, the flow is characterized by the formation of hairpin vortices downstream of the protuberance. The protuberance also introduces significant velocity gradients in the anterior-posterior direction, which cover ∼30 − 40% of the vocal fold length. It is proposed that the disruption of the normal velocity behavior owing to the presence of a polyp will adversely impact the aerodynamic loadings that drive vocal fold motion, contributing to the temporal and spatial vocal fold asymmetries that are clinically-observed in patients with unilateral polyps.     

Influence of subglottic stenosis on the flow-induced vibration of a computational vocal fold model

The effect of subglottic stenosis on vocal fold vibration is investigated. An idealized stenosis is defined, parameterized, and incorporated into a two-dimensional, fully coupled finite element model of the vocal folds and laryngeal airway. Flow-induced responses of the vocal fold model to varying severities of stenosis are compared. The model vibration was not appreciably affected by stenosis severities of up to 60% occlusion. Model vibration was altered by stenosis severities of 90% or greater, evidenced by decreased superior model displacement, glottal width amplitude, and flow rate amplitude. Predictions of vibration frequency and maximum flow declination rate were also altered by high stenosis severities. The observed changes became more pronounced with increasing stenosis severity and inlet pressure, and the trends correlated well with flow resistance calculations. Flow visualization was used to characterize subglottal flow patterns in the space between the stenosis and the vocal folds. Underlying mechanisms for the observed changes, possible implications for human voice production, and suggestions for future work are discussed.     

An investigation of asymmetric flow features in a scaled-up driven model of the human vocal folds

Flow through a driven, 7.5 times life-size vocal fold model was investigated at corresponding life-size flow rates of Q _mean  = 89.1 ml/s, 159.4 ml/s, and 253.0 ml/s. The flow was scaled to match physiological values for Reynolds, Strouhal, and Euler numbers. The models were driven at a life-size frequency of 94 Hz. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) data were acquired in the anterior–posterior midplane of the glottis, and the unsteady transglottal pressure drop across the vocal folds was simultaneously measured. Flow and pressure data were obtained at four discrete instances during the closing phases of the phonatory cycle for which t/T _open  = 0.60, 0.70, 0.80, and 0.90. The glottal jet trajectory exhibited a bimodal distribution of flow attachment between the two medial surfaces of the glottis. Vortex shedding at the trailing edge separation point generated instabilities in the shear layer, which caused large oscillations in the glottal jet orientation downstream of the glottal exit. The development of the Coanda effect during the glottal cycle was found to have minimal impact on the transglottal pressure drop, suggesting that flow orientation does not directly influence the dipole sound source. The change in transglottal pressure drop as a result of jet trajectory was less than 2% for all three investigated flow rates.     

An investigation of jet trajectory in flow through scaled vocal fold models with asymmetric glottal passages

Pulsatile two-dimensional flow through asymmetric static divergent models of the human vocal folds is investigated. Included glottal divergence angles are varied between 10° and 30°, with asymmetry angles between the vocal fold pairs ranging from 5° to 15°. The model glottal configurations represent asymmetries that arise during a phonatory cycle due to voice disorders. The flow is scaled to physiological values of Reynolds, Strouhal, and Euler numbers. Data are acquired in the anterior–posterior mid-plane of the vocal fold models using phase-averaged Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) acquired at ten discrete locations in a phonatory cycle. Glottal jet stability arising from the vocal fold asymmetries is investigated and compared to previously reported work for symmetric vocal fold passages. Jet stability is enhanced with an increase in the included divergence angle, and the glottal asymmetry. Concurrently, the bi-modal jet trajectory and flow unsteadiness diminishes. Consistent with previous findings, the flow attachment due to the Coanda effect occurs when the acceleration of the forcing function is zero.     

Solving for unsteady airflow in a glottal model with immersed moving boundaries

This work builds on previous efforts to characterize the dynamic development of the airflow in the glottis from a fluid mechanical point of view. A multigrid finite-difference method with immersed boundaries is implemented to solve the Navier–Stokes equations in a channel constricted by a vibrating rigid structure with a shape conforming to the human vocal folds. For the dynamically evolving boundaries we apply a forced oscillation glottal model. The large scale deformations of the boundaries are handled without regridding and tracheal input velocity is either set to a constant value or synchronized with wall motion. Particular attention is paid to the mobility of the point where the airflow detaches from the flapping walls. Results illustrate the relevance and the diversity of flow separation dynamics within the constriction standing for the glottis, while flow instabilities past the constriction are not found to affect flow behavior between the moving walls significantly. A comparison between static and dynamic numerical experiments show that mobility of the flow separation point is nontrivial in general and only rarely quasi-static.     

An investigation of bimodal jet trajectory in flow through scaled models of the human vocal tract

Pulsatile two-dimensional flow through static divergent models of the human vocal folds is investigated. Although the motivation for this study is speech production, the results are generally applicable to a variety of engineering flows involving pulsatile flow through diffusers. Model glottal divergence angles of 10, 20, and 40° represent various geometries encountered in one phonation cycle. Frequency and amplitude of the flow oscillations are scaled with physiological Reynolds and Strouhal numbers typical of human phonation. Glottal velocity trajectories are measured along the anterior–posterior midline by using phase-averaged particle image velocimetry to acquire 1,000 realizations at ten discrete instances in the phonation cycle. The angular deflection of the glottal jet from the streamwise direction (symmetric configuration) is quantified for each realization. A bimodal flow configuration is observed for divergence angles of 10 and 20°, with the flow eventually skewing and attaching to the vocal fold walls. The deflection of the flow toward the vocal fold walls occurs when the forcing function reaches maximum velocity and zero acceleration. For a divergence angle of 40°, the flow never attaches to the vocal fold walls; however, there is increased variability in the glottal jet after the forcing function reaches maximum velocity and zero acceleration. The variation in the jet trajectory as a function of divergence angle is explained by performance maps of diffuser flow regimes. The smaller angle cases are in the unstable transitory stall regime while the 40° divergent case is in the fully developed two-dimensional stall regime. Very small geometric variations in model size and surface finish significantly affect the flow behavior. The bimodal, or flip-flopping, glottal jet behavior is expected to influence the dipole contribution to sound production.     

On the jet formation through a leaky glottis

The present experimental study aims at analyzing the jet formation of the glottal jet flow using a model of a leaky glottis. Experiments were performed in a flow channel with dynamic models of the vocal folds in order to measure the glottal waveform and the velocity distribution in the supraglottal region using High Speed Particle Image Velocimetry (HSPIV). Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD) of the vortex Q-criterion was performed in order to detect the energetically most significant large-scale vortex structures and their appearance in the jet flow. The spectral analysis of the glottal waveforms results in an increased spectral decay with more prominent peaks at higher frequencies in the case of a leaky glottis compared to a completely closing reference case. Vortex induced fluctuation frequencies have similar spectral content in both cases as they appear as trains of vortex packets in a regular manner over the glottal cycle. However, when removing the false vocal folds in the leaky glottis model, coherence of vortex generation is lost over the motion cycle. Thus, the presence of the false vocal folds retains most of the vortex induced characteristics in the source spectrum even when the vocal folds do not close fully.     

High-speed PIV measurements of the flow downstream of a dynamic mechanical model of the human vocal folds

The objective of the present study is the detailed analysis of the unsteady vortex dynamics downstream of the human glottis during phonation at typical fundamental frequencies of the male voice of about 120 Hz. A hydraulic respiratory mock circuit has been built, including a factor of three up-scaled realistic dynamic model of the vocal folds. Time-resolving flow measurements were carried out downstream of the glottis by means of high-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV). The function of the human glottis is reproduced by two counter-rotating cams, each of which is covered with a stretched silicone membrane. The three-dimensional (3-D) geometry of the cams is designed such that the rotation leads to a realistic time-varying motion and profile of the glottis and waveform of the glottal cycle. Using high-speed PIV, the velocity field is captured with high spatial and temporal resolution to investigate the unsteady vortex dynamics of the cyclic jet-like flow in the vocal tract. The results help us to understand the vorticity interaction within the pulsating jet and, consequently, the generated sound in a human voice. In addition, changing the 3-D contours of the cams enables us to investigate basic pathological differences of the glottis function and the resulting alterations of the velocity and vorticity field in the vocal tract. The results are presented for typical physiological flow conditions in the human glottis. The frequencies of periodic vortex structures generated downstream of the glottis are fivefold higher than the fundamental frequency of the vocal folds oscillation. The highest vorticity fluctuations have a phase shift of 35% relative to the opening of the glottis. Finally, the flow field in the vocal tract is identified to be highly three-dimensional.     

Numerical and experimental investigation of flow over a semicircular weir

The water flow over a semicircular weir is investigated numerically and experimentally in this paper. The numerical model solves the Reynolds equation for a mean flow field with thek-ε-turbulent model. To trace the motion of the free surface, the COF method with geometric reconstruction is employed. The velocity of the flow is measured by means of LDV technique. Four types of flow patterns, the position of the separation and reattachment point, the distribution of shear stress on the bed at downstream of the weir are presented and discussed. The numerical results agree well with the experiment data.     

A three-dimensional study of the glottal jet

This work builds upon the efforts to characterize the three-dimensional features of the glottal jet during vocal fold vibration. The study uses a Stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry setup on a self-oscillating physical model of the vocal folds with a uniform vocal tract. Time averages are documented and analyzed within the framework given by observations reported for jets exiting elongated nozzles. Phase averages are locked to the audio signal and used to obtain a volumetric reconstruction of the jet. From this reconstruction, the intra-cycle dynamics of the jet axis switching is disclosed.     

A reduced-order flow model for vocal fold vibration: From idealized to subject-specific models

We present a reduced-order model for fluid–structure interaction (FSI) simulation of vocal fold vibration during phonation. This model couples the three-dimensional (3D) tissue mechanics and a one-dimensional (1D) flow model that is derived from the momentum and mass conservation equations for the glottal airflow. The effects of glottal entrance and pressure loss in the glottis are incorporated in the flow model. We consider both idealized vocal fold geometries and subject-specific anatomical geometries segmented from the MRI images of rabbits. For the idealized vocal fold geometries, we compare the simulation results from the 1D/3D hybrid FSI model with those from the full 3D FSI simulation based on an immersed-boundary method. For the subject-specific geometries, we incorporate previously estimated tissue properties for individual samples and compare the results with those from the high-speed imaging experiment of in vivo phonation. In both setups, the comparison shows good agreement in the vibration frequency, amplitude, phase delay, and deformation pattern of the vocal fold, which suggests potential application of the present approach for future patient-specific modeling.     

Analysis of flow-structure coupling in a mechanical model of the vocal folds and the subglottal system

An analysis is made of the nonlinear interactions between flow in the subglottal vocal tract and glottis, sound waves in the subglottal system and a mechanical model of the vocal folds. The mean flow through the system is produced by a nominally steady contraction of the lungs, and mechanical experiments frequently involve a ‘lung cavity’ coupled to an experimental subglottal tube of arbitrary or ill-defined effective length L, on the basis that the actual value of L has little or no influence on excitation of the vocal folds. A simple, self-exciting single-mass mathematical model of the vocal folds is used to investigate the sound generated within the subglottal domain and the unsteady volume flux from the glottis for experiments where it is required to suppress feedback of sound from the supraglottal vocal tract. In experiments where the assumed absorption of sound within the sponge-like interior of the lungs is small, the influence of changes in L can be very significant: when the subglottal tube behaves as an open-ended resonator (when L is as large as half the acoustic wavelength) there is predicted to be a mild increase in volume flux magnitude and a small change in waveform. However, the strong appearance of second harmonics of the acoustic field is predicted at intermediate lengths, when L is roughly one quarter of the acoustic wavelength. In cases of large lung damping, however, only modest changes in the volume flux are predicted to occur with variations in L.     

Time resolved flow-field measurements of a turbulent mixing layer over a rectangular cavity

High Reynolds number, low Mach number, turbulent shear flow past a rectangular, shallow cavity has been experimentally investigated with the use of dual-camera cinematographic particle image velocimetry (CPIV). The CPIV had a 3 kHz sampling rate, which was sufficient to monitor the time evolution of large-scale vortices as they formed, evolved downstream and impinged on the downstream cavity wall. The time-averaged flow properties (velocity and vorticity fields, streamwise velocity profiles and momentum and vorticity thickness) were in agreement with previous cavity flow studies under similar operating conditions. The time-resolved results show that the separated shear layer quickly rolled-up and formed eddies immediately downstream of the separation point. The vortices convect downstream at approximately half the free-stream speed. Vorticity strength intermittency as the structures approach the downstream edge suggests an increase in the three-dimensionality of the flow. Time-resolved correlations reveal that the in-plane coherence of the vortices decays within 2–3 structure diameters, and quasi-periodic flow features are present with a vortex passage frequency of ~1 kHz. The power spectra of the vertical velocity fluctuations within the shear layer revealed a peak at a non-dimensional frequency corresponding to that predicted using linear, inviscid instability theory.     

Wall pressure fluctuations and topology in separated flows over a forward-facing step

Laboratory measurements of wall pressure fluctuations and aerodynamic fields were made in separated flows over a forward facing step (h = 30, 40 and 50 mm with U _e = 15–40 m/s). An array of 16 off-set pressure probes extending in the streamwise and the spanwise directions was especially developed for sensing the wall pressure fluctuations. The flow field was also investigated by wall flow visualizations and PIV to analyze the flow topology in an open section wind tunnel. The results show a different behavior of the flow depending on the aspect ratio l/h and δ/h for high Reynolds numbers. The space time correlations between the wall pressure and the velocity fields were highlighted. The results show that high levels of these correlations are located at the top of the recirculation bubble, mainly in the shear layer and are extended downstream of the re-attachment point. Indeed, the results indicate that the flapping motion at the separation is important in the flow organization at the re-attachment point.     

SCALE ADAPTIVE SIMULATION OF FLOWS AROUND A CIRCULAR CYLINDER AT HIGH SUB-CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER

借助γ-Re_θ转捩模型,实现了高亚临界雷诺数（Re=1.4×10⁵）下圆柱层流分离流动的尺度自适应模拟.统计平均结果表明数值计算和实验测量较为接近,尤其在圆柱后半段的分离区中,压力系数和实验符合得很好,误差主要源于分离点预测的不准确. 瞬态流动则显示,层流分离的剪切层中出现了展向不稳定,且在向下游的输运过程中不断增强,最后转捩为完全湍流. 在湍流分离模拟中,由于缺乏剪切层失稳的非定常性,SST-SAS 模型的尺度分辨能力变弱,因此在分离区以及下游尾迹中求解出的湍流尺度要明显较层流分离时大.     

Computational analysis and flow structure of a transitional separated-reattached flow over a surface mounted obstacle and a forward-facing step

Large-eddy simulation (LES) of transitional separating-reattaching flow on a two-dimensional square surface mounted obstacle and a forward facing step has been performed using a dynamic sub-grid scale model. The Reynolds number based on the uniform inlet velocity and the obstacle/step height is 4.5 × 10³. The mean LES results for both the obstacle and step flow compare reasonably well with the available experimental and DNS data.

The flow structures upstream of the surface-mounted obstacle (referred to hereafter as obstacle) and the forward-facing step (referred to hereafter as FFS) consist of unstable two-dimensional structures and coherent rib-shaped structures. These structures with the aid of 3D streamline visualisation strongly indicate that the upstream separation bubble is a closed one rather than an open one in the sense that there is little evidence to suggest that there is fluid injection from the upstream separation region into the downstream separated region for the two geometries. The spectra and time history for the velocities and pressure fields at locations immediately upstream of the obstacle and FFS (including the recirculation region) were analysed using both the Fourier and wavelet transforms and revealed the unsteady nature of the recirculation region upstream of the obstacle and FFS.

The transition process has been elucidated using both 2D and 3D flow visualisation of the flow. In both geometries (obstacle and FFS), the separated boundary layer downstream of the leading edge shows 2D nature and roll-up shortly downstream of the separation line leading to 2D K-H rolls to be shed from the leading edge. Coherent structures such as the λ-shaped and rib-like vortices commonly associated with a flat plate boundary layer and also found in the separated-reattached flow of a blunt leading edge plate aligned horizontally to a flow are not common in the separated-reattached flow over the obstacle and FFS.     

高亚临界雷诺数圆柱绕流的尺度自适应模拟

借助γ-Re_θ转捩模型,实现了高亚临界雷诺数（Re=1.4×105）下圆柱层流分离流动的尺度自适应模拟.统计平均结果表明数值计算和实验测量较为接近,尤其在圆柱后半段的分离区中,压力系数和实验符合得很好,误差主要源于分离点预测的不准确. 瞬态流动则显示,层流分离的剪切层中出现了展向不稳定,且在向下游的输运过程中不断增强,最后转捩为完全湍流. 在湍流分离模拟中,由于缺乏剪切层失稳的非定常性,SST-SAS 模型的尺度分辨能力变弱,因此在分离区以及下游尾迹中求解出的湍流尺度要明显较层流分离时大.      

Self-entrainment of air on stepped spillways

The pseudo-bottom-inception point related to air entrainment is located further upstream on stepped spillways than on smooth spillways, for otherwise identical conditions. Its position is relevant concerning cavitation aspects, flow losses and flow depths. This Paper presents and discusses visual observations made with a high-speed camera and air concentration measurements in the vicinity of the pseudo-bottom air inception point on a stepped model spillway. Insight into the bottom aeration processes is provided, pointing at the effects of dynamic and turbulent air-phase surface troughs instantaneously protruding to the pseudo-bottom. In addition, the measured data were analyzed with regard to the extensions of these surface troughs. The trough bases were found to reach approximately 70–80% of the mixture flow depth upstream of the inception point, to 60–70% at the inception point and to 40–50% at the equilibrium flow region downstream of the inception point. The highly-turbulent character of developed flow is described and the general air transport process specified on the basis of air concentrations and related parameters.     

Pulsating flow in a planar diffuser upstream of automotive catalyst monoliths

The flow distribution across automotive exhaust catalysts has a significant effect on their conversion efficiency. The exhaust gas is pulsating and flow distribution is a function of engine operating condition, namely speed (frequency) and load (flow rate). This study reports on flow measurements made across catalyst monoliths placed downstream of a wide-angled planar diffuser presented with pulsating flow. Cycle-resolved particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements were made in the diffuser and hot wire anemometry (HWA) downstream of the monoliths. The ratio of pulse period to residence time within the diffuser (defined as the J factor) characterises the flow distribution. During acceleration the flow remained attached to the diffuser walls for some distance before separating near the diffuser inlet later in the cycle. Two cases with J ∼ 3.5 resulted in very similar flow fields with the flow able to reattach downstream of the separation bubbles. With J = 6.8 separation occurred earlier with the flow field resembling, at the time of deceleration, the steady flow field. Increasing J from 3.5 to 6.8 resulted in greater flow maldistribution within the monoliths; steady flow producing the highest maldistribution in all cases for the same Re.     

Control of flow separation from a model wing at low Reynolds numbers

The results of an experimental investigation of the structure of the flow separated from the model of a straight wing with point sources of disturbances (bulges) made on its surface are presented. The variations in the three-dimensional flow pattern are analyzed as functions of the bulge shapes and positions. It is found that the flow can be controlled by means of mounting the bulges downstream of the separation line, in the return flow region, since in this case they hinder large-scale vortex formation in the separation zone. The results obtained show that there is an intimate connection between the vortices and the separation zone as a whole. Impeding the vortex structure formation can result in considerable variations in the separation zone structure, up to its complete disappearance.