热峰模型在聚碳酸酯非晶化潜径迹中的应用

为了描述快重离子在聚合物中的潜径迹行为，用不同能量的快重离子 (1158GeVFe5656,1755GeVXe136¹³⁶及2636GeVU238²³⁸) 辐照 叠层半结晶聚碳酸酯膜 (Makrofol KG型)，结合x射线衍射测量技术，在较宽的电子能损 (1 9—171keV/nm)和离子注量（5×1010¹⁰—3×1012¹² cm-2^-2）范围研究了离子在半 关键词： 离子辐照 聚碳酸酯 非晶化 潜径迹     

Nuclear tracks: present and future perspectives

Current research work related to the development of nuclear tracks comprising: (i) fundamental principles (nuclear track physics and chemistry, as well as development of track detectors and the relevant hard- and software), (ii) development of nuclear instruments and methods (etch track radiometers for ions, neutrons and cosmic rays, radon monitoring devices, radiography and fission track dating) is briefly outlined. The paper concentrates on a literature survey of applications of nuclear tracks in (iii) physical sciences (high-energy physics, nuclear physics and earth sciences), (iv) biomedical sciences (radiation protection, environment, cancer therapy), and (v) technological sciences (materials, nano-technology and nuclear technology).

Presently about 350 papers per year are being published in this field. Increased activity is noted in ion track technology (track-made membranes, modern nano-tech methodology including biological and biological-like samples, nano-electrode bio-electrochemistry, bio-magnetic assays and probes). New applications of nuclear tracks in fundamental (possibility of the detection of neutron quantum states in a gravitational field, nucleus–nucleus interactions, search for new chemical super-heavy elements) and applied science (precise measurements of the behaviour of radiation in human tissue in connection with of long term space missions and treatment of cancer) are surveyed, and possible research in the next decades is presented and examined in this review paper.     

Factors affecting the registration and counting of alpha tracks in solid state nuclear track detectors

In view of the fact that the radon progeny contribute the highest to the natural radiation dose to general populations, large scale and long-term measurements of radon and its progeny in the houses have been receiving considerable attention. Solid State Nuclear Track Detector (SSNTD) based systems, being the best suited for large scale passive monitoring, have been widely used for the radon gas (using a cup closed with a semi-permeable membrane) and to a limited extent, for the measurement of radon progeny (using bare mode in conjunction with the cup). These have been employed for radon mapping and indoor radon epidemiological studies with good results. In this technique, alpha tracks recorded on SSNTD films are converted to radon/thoron concentrations using corresponding conversion factors obtained from calibration experiments carried out in controlled environments. The detector response to alpha particles depends mainly on the registration efficiency of the alpha tracks on the detector films and the subsequent counting efficiency. While the former depends on the exposure design, the latter depends on the protocols followed for developing and counting of the tracks. The paper discusses on parameters like etchant temperature, stirring of the etchant and duration of etching and their influence on the etching rates on LR-115 films. Concept of break down thickness of the SSNTD film in spark counting technique is discussed with experimental results. Error estimates on measurement results as a function of background tracks of the films are also discussed in the paper.      

Ion tracks in ultrathin polymer films: The role of the substrate

Surface damage produced by single MeV-GeV heavy ions impacting ultrathin polymer films has been shown to be weaker than those observed under bulk (thick film) conditions. The decrease in damage efficiency has been attributed to the suppression of long-range effects arising from excited atoms lying deeply in the solid. This raises the possibility that the substrate of the films itself is relevant to the radiation effects seen at the top surface. Here, the role of the substrate on cratering induced by individual 1.1 GeV Au ions in ultrathin poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) layers is investigated. Materials of different thermal and electrical properties (Si, SiO₂, and Au) are used as substrates to deposit PMMA thin films of various thicknesses from ∼1 to ∼300 nm. We show that in films thinner than ∼40 nm craters are modulated by the underlying substrate to a degree that depends on the transport properties of the medium. Crater size in ultrathin films deposited on the insulating SiO₂ is larger than in similar films deposited on the conducting Au layer. This is consistent with an inefficient coupling of the electronic excitation energy to the atomic cores in metals. On the other hand, the damage on films deposited on SiO₂ is not very different from the Si substrate with a native oxide layer, suggesting, in addition, poor energy transmission across the film/substrate interface. The experimental observations are also compared to calculations from an analytical model based on energy addition and transport from the excited ion track, which describe only partially the results.     

A simple model for latent track formation due to cluster ion stopping and fragmentation in solids

An estimate of the electronic stopping of a swift cluster ion during different stages of penetration in a given material is presented. We take a simplified approach to the stopping process by neglecting vicinage effects on the stopping cross section as well as spatial distortion due to Coulomb forces among ions. The different stages of penetration and energy loss are based on the hypothesis of formation of a transient plasma (the plasma stopping regime)—due to the release of energetic electrons from the target material—within and around the spatial region defined by the correlated positions of each cluster constituent ion (atom). The density of the transient plasma is treated as a function of the rate of energy deposition and depth up to a point where the rate of energy deposition yields a threshold value where the ejected target electrons immediately recombine so that stopping in a cold target begins (conventional stopping regime) and where the cluster constituent ions start being neutralized according to a charge equilibration scheme as depicted by the effective charge relation of Betz. The model is applied to the stopping of 40.2 Mev C₆₀³⁺ projectiles penetrating an Yttrium–Iron Garnet (YIG) target. Also, in this case, a possible explanation for the experimentally observed cluster-fragmentation events at a certain depth is presented.     

Gd, U, Pu and Cm alpha particle energy analysis using tracks in solids

This paper presents advances in a procedure for alpha particle analysis using the nuclear tracks formed in solid-state materials. This method is based on the relationship between the energy deposited in the material by ionizing particles and the track developed after a well-established chemical process. The experimental study included alpha particles in the energy range from 3.2 to 5.8 MeV emitted by ¹⁴⁸Gd, ²³⁸U, ²³⁹Pu and ²⁴⁴Cm. The quantitative results provide a clear signature to identify each one of the radioisotopes based on the formed track parameters. The track analysis is performed with a digital image analysis system associated with a PC mathematical processor. The wide range energy response makes this method a promising analysis system.     

Some relations of the diffusion constant of latent tracks in polymers and the ion energy loss

Measurements of the diffusion constant and the permeability of ion irradiated Makrofol KG (polycarbonate) sheets have been done with Argon and Nitrogen as diffusion gas. The polymers were irradiated at the “Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung” (GSI, Germany) with Uranium and Gold ions with energies of about 10 MeV/nuc. The fluence varies from 3·10⁹ to 4·10¹¹ ions/cm². For the irradiation the material was put together in stacks with layers of 8 μm thickness. This allows to relate a definite amount of energy loss to each layer and to examine the dependence of the diffusion constant and the permeability on it. For comparison electron irradiated and pristine material (i.e. the untreated material) were also measured.

The general tendency shows an increase of the diffusion constant and the permeability with growing energy loss up to a certain limit. In case of the highest energy loss the material changes its appearance and the diffusion constant and the permeability values are remarkable lower than those of the pristine material. A first trail of explanation might give the three-zone-model presented in this paper.     

Lattice location of light implanted ions in Si and Ge after laser annealing

Abstract

Radiation damage produced by short ranged (ranges 20–30 μm) charged particles (alpha particles and fission fragments) in thick plastic track detectors (thickness ≈ 150 μm) has been enlarged to produce “through” holes by using a combination of electrochemical and chemical etching processes. A series of experiments were conducted with a view to optimize the operating conditions required to produce through holes with most suitable profiles for a particular application at hand. This novel technique has been employed in producing thick nuclear track filters using fission fragments from U-235 fission and alpha particles from radon and its daughters.     

Differentiation between tracks and damages in SSNTD under the atomic force microscope

We have observed three-dimensional sponge-like structures as well as strips of connecting pits on the surface of the LR 115 detector after etching, which can be confused with the small tracks formed after short etching time. We have employed an atomic force microscope (AFM) to study these “damages” as well as genuine alpha tracks for short etching time. It was found that while the track and damage openings could be similar in size and shape, the depths for the damages were consistently smaller. Therefore, the depth of the pits will serve as a clear criterion to differentiate between tracks and other damages. The ability to discriminate between genuine tracks from other damages is most important for etching for short time intervals.     

The effect of simultaneous temperature, pressure and stress on the experimental annealing of spontaneous fission tracks in apatite: a brief overview

Tracks made in minerals by the electronic stopping of uranium fission fragments provide a modern geological dating tool, and are believed also to yield specific information on the low-temperature thermal history of rocks. Experimental work showing that the damaged crystal lattice along a fission track recovers primarily as a function of temperature ignored the fact that the basic theory of atomic diffusion requires an exponential decrease in the intrinsic diffusion coefficient with increasing pressure. Here, fission track recovery was experimentally investigated in basic apatite under the simultaneous influences of temperature, pressure and stress. We show that track fading is a complex recovery mechanism responding to several environmental physical parameters simultaneously. In particular a strong decrease in the track recovery rate was observed as a function of increasing pressure. And a nearly temperature-independent recovery was observed in samples under stress.     

Formation of CO2 gas and OH groups in CR-39 plastics due to gamma-ray and ions irradiation

FT-IR spectral studies have been made for CR-39 detectors irradiated by gamma-rays, protons and carbon ions. An absorption peak for CO₂ appeared and grew with the fluence. The peak height was found to decrease gradually by storing in air. Absorbance of the OH group produced by ion bombardment was observed separately from that of adsorbed water using an FT-IR system on the beam line. The concentration of OH group would govern the rate of penetration of chemical agents along the track.     

Effects of radiations on the characteristics of alpha and fission tracks in CR-39 detectors

Abstract

The effects of neutron, gamma and alpha radiations on the alpha and fission fragment tracks registration and revelation properties of CR-39 detectors (CR-39 and CR-39(DOP) were studied. It was found that the ratio of the bulk etch rate of irradiated to unirradiated (V_G(irr.)/V_G(unirr.) detectors is linearly dependent on dose. An exponential decrease in fission track densities with increase in neutron fluence was observed. The ratio of V_G(irr.)/V_G(unirr.) was found to be high in CR-39 than that in CR-39(DOP) exposed to the same reactor neutron fluence. The decrease in fission track densities with increase in neutron fluence was observed to be faster in CR-39 than in CR-39(DOP). This indicates that doping with dioctyl phthalate improves the radiation resistance of CR-39 detectors. It was observed that in detectors exposed to an alpha flux of the order of 9.36 × 10⁶ / cm², the fission track density was reduced by 11% and thereafter it remained constant. The results also indicate that thermal neutron fluence up to 7.01 ×10¹¹ neutrons/cm² does not affect the alpha and fission track densities. I.R. spectra were also studied to find out the nature of chemical changes produced by these radiations on CR-39.     

The quartic oscillator in an external field and the statistical physics of highly anisotropic solids

The statistical mechanics of one- and two-dimensional Ginzburg–Landau systems is evaluated analytically, via the transfer matrix method, using an expression of the ground state energy of the quartic anharmonic oscillator in an external field. In the two-dimensional case, the critical temperature of the order–disorder phase transition is expressed as a Lambert function of the inverse inter-chain coupling constant.     

Poor decay of correlations in inhomogeneous fluids and solids and their relevance for the physics of phase boundaries

We study the poor decay of correlations for equilibrium states of inhomogeneous fluids and solids, in the regimes of both classical and quantum statistical mechanics. Our main observation is the usefulness of the statistical mechanical expression of thestress tensor and its long-range correlations with the particle density. From this we are able to infer a very slow decay of correlations for the various molecular distribution functions under discussion. The derived results are of relevance both for completely inhomogeneous systems such as quasicrystals or granular structures and for the slightly more regular cases of, e.g., phase separating layers in fluids and solids, ideal crystals, etc. As one of the byproducts we prove the nonexistence of planequantum interfaces in two dimensions (thus extending earlier results of Requardt to the quantum regime). The results hold for arbitrary potentials of not too long range.     

Correlation functions in the theory of atomic collision cascades: Ion location and the distribution in depth and size of damage clusters

Abstract

Simple depth distribution functions of ion bombardment damage predict the spatial extension of the cumulative damage caused by a beam of ions. Correlation functions need to be considered when more detailed information is desirable, such as the average size or depth of individual damage clusters, the average location of an ion within its damage cluster, and the fluctuations of these quantities. In this paper we establish an integral equation for the pair correlation function, coupling the individual ion range with the deposited energy. This pair correlation function determines the damage caused by all those ions that come to rest at a specific penetration depth. Solutions of the integral equation are found by standard methods. Explicit results are presented for elastic scattering governed by power cross sections. The depth distribution of damage clusters turns out to be significantly narrower than the gross damage distribution at all mass ratios except for M ₁ ? M ₂, and the size distribution appears insensitive to depth when measured perpendicular to the ion beam, but varying with depth when measured parallel. Predictions on ion location suffer from a surprizingly sensitive dependence on the scattering cross section. A note on the fluctuation of the sputtering yield by individual ions concludes the paper.     

Radiation sensitivity of natural organic matter: Clay mineral association effects in the Callovo-Oxfordian argillite

Clay-rich low-organic carbon formations (e.g., Callovo-Oxfordian argillite in France and Opalinus Clay in Switzerland) are considered as host rocks for radioactive waste disposal. The clay-organic carbon has a strong impact on the chemical stability of the clays. For this reason, the nature of the clay-organic carbon, the release of hydrophilic organic compounds, namely, humic (HA) and fulvic acids (FA) and the radiation sensitivity of the undisturbed host rock organics was investigated. The clay sample originates from Oxfordian argillite (447 m depth, borehole EST 104). HA and FA were extracted following the standard International Humic Substance Society (IHSS) isolation procedure. Synchrotron based (C-, K-, Ca-, O- and Fe-edge XANES) scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) and FT-IR microspectroscopy was used to identify under high spatial resolution the distribution of clay-organic matter with different functionality using principal component and cluster analysis. The results show that in this old (Jurassic) geological formation, small parts of the organic inventory (1–5%) keeps the structure/functionality and can be mobilized as hydrophilic humic substance type material (HA and FA). Target spectra analysis shows best correlation for isolated humic acids with organics found in smectite-rich regions, whereas the extractable FA has better spectral similarities with the illite mixed layer minerals (MLM) regions. After radiation of 1.7 GGy under helium atmosphere the same rock sample area was investigated for radiation damage. Radiation damage in the smectite and illite–MLM associated organic matter is comparably low with 20–30% total oxygen mass loss and 13–18% total carbon mass loss. A critical dose d_c of 2.5 GGy and a optical density after infinite radiation (OD_∝) of 54% was calculated under room temperature conditions. C(1s) XANES show a clear increase in CC bonds especially in the illite–MLM associated organics. This results suggests a combination of the formation of CC bond due to crosslinking via polymerization and mass loss due to bond breaking (scissioning) in the main chain or in side groups of the organic macromolecules upon irradiation.     

Analytical results for the electronic shell structure in mesoscopic systems: Balian-Bloch type theory for spheres,discs, rings and anti-dot lattices

The electronic shell structure resulting from the interference of closed orbital paths is determined for mesoscopic systems like spherical clusters, discs and rings by extending the semiclassical theory of Balian and Bloch. Analytical results for the shell structure in the density of states are obtained. Thus, the dependence of the shell structure on dimension, size and geometry and potential of the mesoscopic system and on an external magnetic field can be studied systematically. Comparison of the semiclassical results and those of quantum mechanical calculations permits analysis of typical quantum mechanical effects and shows the validity of the semiclassical theory. Our results should stimulate new experiments, can be used to calculate oscillations in the binding-energy, ionization-potential, and can be applied to analyze oscillations in the electronic density of states of quantum dot systems like anti-dot lattices.