Role of oxygen in the degradation of atrazine by UV/Fe(III) process

In this study, the role of oxygen in the regeneration of Fe(III) during the degradation of atrazine in UV/Fe(III) process was studied. The degradations of atrazine in UV/Fe(III) and UV-photolysis processes in the presence and absence of oxygen were compared. The results showed that the degradations of atrazine in these processes followed the pseudo-first-order kinetics well. The process exhibiting the highest rate constant (k) was UV/Fe(III)/air process, because k-value for UV/Fe(III)/air process was about 1.47, 2.23 and 2.56 times of those for UV/Fe(III)/N₂, UV/air and UV/N₂ processes, respectively. The degradation of atrazine was enhanced by oxygen in UV/Fe(III) process and the enhancement was more remarkable at higher initial concentrations of Fe(III). The investigation into the changes of Fe(III) concentrations demonstrated that the presence of oxygen led to the regeneration of Fe(III), which resulted in the enhancement of atrazine degradation. With air bubbling, the ferric ions were 25% more than those with N₂ bubbling. The experimental data showed the regeneration of Fe(III) required the excited organic molecules and oxygen and on the basis of these results, the regeneration mechanism of Fe(III) was proposed. It was also found that due to the oxidation of Fe(II), the degradation of atrazine in UV/Fe(II)/air process was effective at a low Fe(II) concentration of 7 mg/L, similar to that in UV/Fe(III)/air process. This study makes clear the role of oxygen in the regeneration of Fe(III), and thus it provides a guide to reduce the input of Fe(III) and is helpful to the application of UV/Fe(III) process in practice.     

Electrochemical characterization of the redox couple of Fe(III)/Fe(II) mediated by grafted polymer reference electrode (GPRE)

A grafted polymer reference electrode (GPRE) (polystyrene grafted with acrylonitrile as a monomer using gamma irradiation) was fabricated as a reference electrode using cyclic voltammetry (CV). The redox process of K₃Fe(CN)₆ during CV was studied. It was found that the redox current peaks of Fe(II)/Fe(III) in 0.1 M of KCl as supporting electrolyte is given the same oxidation–reduction current as in the Ag/AgCl reference electrode, indicating a good result of GPRE and, hence, it can be used for voltammetric analysis technique. The physical properties of GPRE include good hardness, insoluble in non-aqueous electrolytes (except dimethyl formamide and chloroform), and good stability at different solvents. In addition, the sensitivity under conditions of CV is significantly dependent on the scan rate (SR) and variation in concentration. At different SRs, redox peaks of K₃Fe(CN)₆ were observed in a reversible process: Fe(II)/Fe(III). Interestingly, the redox reaction of Fe(II)/Fe(III) solution using GCE versus GPRE remains constant even after 15 cyclings. It is therefore evident that the GPRE possesses some degree of stability. Also, the new reference electrode GPRE has improved the properties of electroanalysis of CV on the working electrode GCE in reliability with the relative standard deviation.     

Effect of iron salt on the color removal of water containing the azo-dye reactive blue 69 using photo-assisted Fe(II)/H2O2 and Fe(III)/H2O2 systems

The effect of chloride, sulfate and nitrate anions on the color removal of water containing the azo-dye reactive blue 69 (RB69) in acidic solution, by using photo-assisted Fenton process with Fe(II)/H₂O₂ and Fe(III)/H₂O₂ systems was investigated. Experiments were conducted in a batch reactor irradiated during 5 h with a domestic 15 W lamp with emission in the visible spectra. Experimental results showed color disappearance in the first 5 min of reaction in the photo-assisted process for all of the different salts, greatly enhancing the reaction rate with respect to the corresponding systems under dark conditions. The exception of the general trend was the Fe₂(SO₄)₃/H₂O₂/UV system, where the decolorization process is slower probably because the oxidative species generated by rupture of Fe(III)–peroxo complexes are less reactive. Total organic matter depletion and mineralization of the effluent were also tested during the experimental runs by means of total organic carbon (TOC) showing that, for most of the photo-assisted experiments high mineralization was reached after 3 h of reaction.     

Cyclic voltammetric study of the redox behavior of Fe(II)/Fe(III) systems forming during the oxidation of Fe(II) complexes with saccharin and with saccharin and 1,10-phenanthroline

The electrochemical redox behavior of Fe(II)/Fe(III) systems formed during the oxidation of complexes [Fe(C₇H₄NO₃S)₂(H₂O)₄] · 2H₂O (Fe-sac) and [Fe(C₇H₄NO₃S)₂(C₁₂H₈N₂] · 2H₂O (Fe-sac-phen) have been investigated using cyclic voltammetry in the aqueous medium. In the CVs one pair of well-defined cathodic and anodic peaks appear for the transfer of single electron in the Fe-sac complex. The peak potentials are much wider separated as compared with the free (uncoordinated) Fe(II)/Fe(III) system. The ΔE values demonstrate that the electrode process is irreversible. In the presence of secondary ligand, 1,10-phenanthroline (Fe-sac-phen complex), the redox behavior of iron complexes is quasireversible. The effect of pH on the redox behavior of iron system is studied in acetate buffer. Published in Russian in Elektrokhimiya, 2008, Vol. 44, No. 12, pp. 1504–1509. The text was submitted by author in English     

Synthesis and properties of titanomagnetite (Fe3−xTixO4) nanoparticles: A tunable solid-state Fe(II/III) redox system

Titanomagnetite (Fe_3−xTi_xO₄) nanoparticles were synthesized by room temperature aqueous precipitation, in which Ti(IV) replaces Fe(III) and is charge compensated by conversion of Fe(III) to Fe(II) in the unit cell. A comprehensive suite of tools was used to probe composition, structure, and magnetic properties down to site-occupancy level, emphasizing distribution and accessibility of Fe(II) as a function of x. Synthesis of nanoparticles in the range 0 ? x ? 0.6 was attempted; Ti, total Fe and Fe(II) content were verified by chemical analysis. TEM indicated homogeneous spherical 9-12 nm particles. μ-XRD and Mössbauer spectroscopy on anoxic aqueous suspensions verified the inverse spinel structure and Ti(IV) incorporation in the unit cell up to x ? 0.38, based on Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio deduced from the unit cell edge and Mössbauer spectra. Nanoparticles with a higher value of x possessed a minor amorphous secondary Fe(II)/Ti(IV) phase. XANES/EXAFS indicated Ti(IV) incorporation in the octahedral sublattice (B-site) and proportional increases in Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio. XA/XMCD indicated that increases arise from increasing B-site Fe(II), and that these charge-balancing equivalents segregate to those B-sites near particle surfaces. Dissolution studies showed that this segregation persists after release of Fe(II) into solution, in amounts systematically proportional to x and thus the Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio. A mechanistic reaction model was developed entailing mobile B-site Fe(II) supplying a highly interactive surface phase that undergoes interfacial electron transfer with oxidants in solution, sustained by outward Fe(II) migration from particle interiors and concurrent inward migration of charge-balancing cationic vacancies in a ratio of 3:1.     

Enhanced degradation of organic contaminants by Fe(III)/peroxymonosulfate process with l-cysteine

The difficulty in Fe(III)/Fe(II) conversion in the Fe(III)/peroxymonosulfate (PMS) process limits its efficiency and application. Herein, l-cysteine (Cys), a green natural organic ligand with reducing capability, was innovatively introduced into Fe(III)/PMS to construct an excellent Cys/Fe(III)/PMS process. The Cys/Fe(III)/PMS process, at room temperature, can degrade a variety of organic contaminants, including dyes, phenolic compounds, and pharmaceuticals. In subsequent experiments with acid orange 7 (AO7), the AO7 degradation efficiency followed pseudo-first-order kinetic which exhibited an initial “fast stage” and a second “slow stage”. The rate constant values ranged depending on the initial Cys, Fe(III), PMS, and AO7 concentrations, reaction temperature, and pH values. In addition, the presence of Cl^?, NO₃^?, and SO₄^2? had negligible impact while HCO₃^? and humic acid inhibited the degradation of AO7. Furthermore, radical scavenger experiments and methyl phenyl sulfoxide (PMSO) transformation assay indicated that sulfate radical, hydroxyl radical, and ferryl ion (Fe(IV)) were the dominant reactive species involved in the Cys/Fe(III)/PMS process. Finally, based on the results of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, several AO7 degradation pathways, including N=N cleavage, hydroxylation, and ring opening were proposed. This study provided a new insight to improve the efficiency of Fe(III)/PMS process by accelerating Fe(III)/Fe(II) cycle with Cys.     

Pd(OAc)2/M(NO3)n (M = Cu(II), Fe(III); n = 2, 3): Kinetic investigations of an alternative Wacker system for the oxidation of natural olefins

Pd-catalyzed oxidative coupling of camphene by dioxygen afforded mainly a diene, which subsequently underwent oxidation to a ring-expanded β,γ-unsaturated ketone with LiNO₃ as reoxidant. However, the instability of LiNO₃ results to the decomposition of NO₃⁻ ions which subsequently deactivates the catalyst. The present investigation describes the oxidation of terpenes catalyzed by Pd(OAc)₂/M(NO₃)_n (M = Cu(II), Fe(III); n = 2 or 3), using dioxygen as final oxidant. Fe(III) and Cu(II) effectively stabilize the nitrate reoxidant as determined by the significant increase of both catalytic activity and stability of the system. Turnover frequency suggests that Fe(III) is the most efficient co-catalyst. Moreover, it is established that the co-catalysts NO₃⁻, Cu(II) and especially Fe(III) ions, change the product distribution (diene/ketone) remarkably. Their involvement in the rate-determining step was investigated and the results of the kinetic investigations clarified important aspects of Pd(II)-catalyzed oxidation reactions. The described protocol offers an alternative to the traditional Wacker system which uses CuCl₂ as co-catalyst and is not effective in promoting the oxidation of bicycle olefins.     

Electrochemical characterization of the redox couple of Fe(III)/Fe(II) mediated by grafted polymer electrode

A new grafted polymer electrode (GPE) (polystyrene as polymer) was grafted with acrylonitrile as a monomer using gamma irradiation to produce a new grafted polymer. The redox process of K₃Fe(CN)₆ during cyclic voltammetry was studied by the new GPE. The ratio of Ipc/Ipa >1 of GPE to GCE Ipc/Ipa = 1.7, indicating that this electrode is a reversible electrode and can be used in conductivity studies by voltammetric analysis. The physical properties of the new electrode GP have good hardness, insolubility, and stability at different high temperatures and at different pH. Also, the sensitivity under conditions of cyclic voltammetry is significantly dependent on pH, electrolyte, and scan rate. At different scan rates, two oxidation peaks and two reduction peaks of Fe(III) were observed in a reversible process: Fe(III) Fe(II), and Fe(II) Fe(0). Interestingly, the redox reaction of Fe(III) solution using GPE remained constant even after 15 cycles. It is therefore evident that the GPE possesses some degree of stability. The potential use of the grafted polymer as a useful electrode material is therefore clearly evident.     

Fe(III)/Fe(II) separation by solvent extraction for the determination of oxygen stoichiometry in yttrium barium copper oxide superconductor materials

Summary Oxygen stoichiometry is a critical parameter defining the T_c of cuprate superconductors (e.g. YBa₂Cu₃O₇). On dissolution excess or deficiency of oxygen can be converted into shifts of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) concentration ratio of an aqueous solution. For small samples a solvent extraction technique for the separation of Fe(III) from Fe(II) was developed, to make use of the superior sensitivity of atomic spectrometry (AAS, ICP-AES). The system n-benzoylphenylhydroxylamine (BPHA)/CHCl₃ was chosen because it is relatively inactive as a redox partner. Despite the catalytic effect of Cu(II) on the oxidation of Fe(II), oxidation blanks can be kept down at negligible levels. Less than 0.55% of residual Fe(II) is converted to Fe(III) during the extraction procedure (argon atmosphere). In the presence of air, oxidation levels are still practical (3%). Extraction is from 0.3 mol/l HBr providing excellent recovery of Fe(III) (e.g. 98.8%). All Fe(II), Y, Ba (including BaSO₄ precipitate) and 99.4% of the Cu remain in the aqueous phase. Fe(III) is rapidly back-extracted into an aqueous phase by 6 mol/l HCl for dilution and aspiration into the flame or ICP. Recovery of Fe(III) after the two extraction steps is still 98.3%.     

Predominance-zone diagrams of Fe(III) and Fe(II) sulfate complexes in acidic media. Voltammetric and spectrophotometric studies

A thermodynamic study based on concepts of generalized species and equilibria, was used to understand the distribution of Fe(III) and Fe(II) species in the Fe(III)/Fe(II)/H(2)SO(4)/H(2)O system. The two-dimensional predominance zone diagrams (TDPZ) and Pourbaix type diagrams thus obtained permitted the selection of optimum experimental conditions, to differentiate the chemical species involved in this system. The existence of the different predominant chemical species for Fe(III): Fe(3+), FeSO(+)(4) and Fe(SO(4))(-)(2) was evidenced by spectrophotometrical studies for pSO'(4) values from 4 to 0 units in a buffered solution of pH 0.5. Additionally, voltammetric studies performed on Pt, Au and carbon paste electrodes confirmed that the electron exchange between Fe(III) Fe(II) in H(2)SO(4) media occurs by an inner Helmholtz layer mechanism. It was also possible to show that the representative couples at pSO'(4) = 0 (buffered) are: (a) for pH < 0 FeSO (+)(4)FeHSO (+)(4) and (b) for pH > 1.0: Fe(SO (4)) (-)(2)FeHSO (+)(4). The last couple presents a coupled chemical reaction in the electrochemical mechanism; this reaction is associated with the different coordination numbers of Fe(III) and Fe(II).     

Electrochemical study of the reduction of Tm(III) ions in a molten NaCl-2CsCl eutectic

Electrochemical behavior of TmCl₃ solutions in a NaCl-2CsCl eutectic melt at temperatures of 823–973 K on an inert Mo electrode was studied by cyclic and square-wave voltammetry and the method of electromotive forces. The mechanism of the cathodic process was determined, kinetic parameters of the Tm(III) + e ⇆ Tm(II) reaction were found, and the temperature dependence of the diffusion coefficients of Tm(III) ions was calculated. The conditional standard redox potential for the Tm(III)/Tm(II) pair was measured in the temperature range under study. The basic thermodynamic characteristics of the Tm(III) + e ⇆ Tm(II) redox reaction in a molten NaCl-2CsCl eutectic mixture were determined.     

Electrocatalytic effect of iron sulfates on oxygen reduction. Influence of the solvation sphere of the mediator

The redox catalysis of oxygen reduction was performed on a platinum rotating disk electrode. The Fe(III)/Fe(II)/H₂SO₄ system at different pH's was used as a MEDIATOR. The catalytic effect of mediator was directly related to the solvation sphere of Fe(III) and Fe(II). Only the redox couple FeHSO ₄ ²⁺ /FeHSO ₄ ⁺ (pH<0) showed a catalytic effect on oxygen reduction.     

Enhanced Degradation of Paracetamol by the Fe(III)-Sulfite System under UVA Irradiation

The Fe(III)-S(IV) system used for advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) at acidic pH has just been proposed and demonstrated valid for very few contaminants in the last several years. In this work, we investigated the effect of ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation on the degradation efficiency of the Fe(III)/S(IV) system at near-neutral pH. Paracetamol (PARA) was selected as a model contaminant. The influencing factors, such as initial pH and Fe(III)/S(IV) molar ratio on chemical kinetics, and the mechanism of PARA degradation are investigated, with an emphasis on the determination of dominant oxidant species. Our results show that irradiation enhances the PARA degradation by accelerating the decrease of pH to acidic levels, and the optimal pH for the degradation of PARA in the Fe(III)/S(IV)/O₂ system was around 4.0. At near-neutral pH, more than 60% of PARA was decomposed within 40 min under irradiation, whereas no significant degradation of PARA was observed using Fe(III)/S(IV) at pH 7.0 without irradiation. Mechanism investigation revealed that sulfate radical (SO₄^•‒) is the main oxidant species generated and responsible for the PARA degradation under these conditions. This finding may have promising implications in developing a new degradation process for dealing with wastewater at near-neutral pH by the Fe(III)/S(IV)/O₂ system under UVA irradiation.     

邻菲啰啉计算光度法同时测定生物浸出样品中Fe（Ⅱ）和Fe（Ⅲ）

邻菲哕啉光度法常用于Fe（Ⅱ）测定,但受到试样中Fe（Ⅲ）对测定的影响,因此不能直接用于生物浸出样品中Fe（Ⅱ）和Fe（Ⅲ）的同时测定．为此,基于Fe（Ⅱ）邻菲哕啉特征吸收曲线以及混合铁中Fe（Ⅲ）对Fe（Ⅱ）测定的线性影响关系,建立了基于Fe（Ⅱ）和全铁同时测定Fe（Ⅱ）和Fe（Ⅲ）的计算光度法,并研究了生物浸出样品中典型金属离子（Cu^2＋、Ni^2＋、Cd^2＋、Co^2＋）以及试样溶解与储放对测定的影响．方法可准确地测定含铁次生矿物和生物浸出液中铁价态组成,应用于生物浸出矿渣、细胞表面中常量或微量的Fe（Ⅱ）和Fe（Ⅲ）组成分析,具有简便快速的特点．     

New method for simultaneous determination of Fe(II) and Fe(III) in water using flow injection technique

The method exploits the possibilities of flow injection gradient titration in a system of reversed flow with spectrophotometric detection. In the developed approach a small amount of titrant (EDTA) is injected into a stream of sample containing a mixture of indicators (sulfosalicylic acid and 1,10-phenanthroline). In acid environment sulfosalicylic acid forms a complex with Fe(III), whereas 1,10-phenanthroline forms a complex with Fe(II). Measurements are performed at wavelength λ = 530 nm when radiation is absorbed by both complexes. After injection EDTA replaces sulfosalicylic acid and forms with Fe(III) more stable colourless complex. As a result, a characteristic “cut off” peak is registered with a width corresponding to the Fe(III) concentration and with a height corresponding to the Fe(II) concentration. Calibration was performed by titration of four two-component standard solutions of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) concentrations established in accordance with 2² factorial plan. The method was tested with the use of synthetic samples and then it was applied to the analysis of water samples taken from artesian wells. Under optimized experimental conditions Fe(II) and Fe(III) were determined with precision less than 0.8 and 2.5% (RSD) and accuracy less than 3.2 and 5.1% (relative error) within the concentration ranges of 0.1-3.0 and 0.9-3.5 mg L⁻¹ of both analytes, respectively.     

Synthesis, infrared spectra, thermal analyses and structural studies of half-sandwich Fe(III)/Fe(II) complex containing pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate and 1,10-phenanthroline

A new pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate iron(III)/iron(II) complex [Fe(phen)₃][Fe₂(PDC)₄]·3CH₃OH was synthesized and characterized (where PDC = pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylate, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline) by using elemental analysis, IR spectroscopy and thermal analyses (TGA and DTA). The molecular structure of the complex has been determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The complex is mixed-ligands and the IR spectra display bands characteristic of coordinated mixed-ligand bases. All the IR results are in agreement with the X-ray crystal result. The bond lengths indicate that this complex has [Fe(phen)₃]²⁺ cation where Fe(II) ion is in typical low-spin state, and in counter ions, [Fe(PDC)₂]⁻ are both in high-spin state.     

The electrochemical Peltier effect observed with electrode reactions of Fe(II)/Fe(III) redox couples at a gold electrode

The electrochemical Peltier effect was studied at a gold electrode in solutions containing some Fe(II)/Fe(III) redox couples by measuring the local temperature change in the electrode/solution interphase under controlled-potential and controlled-current polarization. Relative values of the electrochemical Peltier coefficient for the cathodic process at equilibrium potential, which is denoted by (Π_c)_I=0, were determined by analyzing the observed temperature change as a function of current. The values of (Π_c)_I=0 were found to be positive for the Fe(H₂O)₆²⁺/Fe(H₂O)₆³⁺ systems in HClO₄ (1 M), HNO₃ (1 M), H₂SO₄ (0.5 M), and HCl (1 M), their magnitudes being very similar in the first three acid solutions, but smaller in the HCl solution. On the other hand, a negative value of (Π_c)_I=0 was obtained in the case of a Fe(CN)₆^4?/Fe(CN)₆^3? couple in a H₂SO₄ (0.5 M) solution. Such a difference in the Peltier coefficient is considered to be due to the difference in the ionic species of iron involved in the electrode reaction.     

Influence of water activity on the Ni(II)/Ni(Hg) electrode reaction in concentrated Ca(ClO4)2 solutions in the temperature range 20–185°C

The electrode reaction of the Ni(II)/Ni(Hg) system occurring in 4–13.7 mol kg^?1 solutions of Ca(ClO₄)₂ in the temperature range 20–185°C was studied by means of pulse polarography and cyclic voltammetry. From analysis of the formal potentials with respect to the ferricinium ionferrocene electrode as a function of the logarithm of the water activity, the hydration numbers of Ni(II) were found. They decrease as both the molality of Ca(ClO₄)₂ and the temperature increase. Limiting values of hydration numbers at both high temperature and concentration of Ca(ClO₄)₂ were near to 6. The electrode reaction proceeds in a step-wise manner with the Ni(I)/Ni(Hg) system controlling the rate of the overall process.The rate constants at formal potentials under different conditions are presented.The electrode reaction orders are determined with respect to the water point to the participation of Ni(H₂O)₄⁺ in the rate-determining step.     

Electrode processes of the V(III)/V(II) and Eu(III)/Eu(II) systems in mixed water + acetone solvents

Rate constants of the electrode reaction V(III)+e⁻ → V(II) in water+acetone mixtures were determined. In the regions of irreversible and quasi-reversible behaviour we used polarographic and square-wave polarographic measurements, respectively. The values of the constant go through a minimum with increasing concentration of acetone. Following the published data for the Eu(III)/Eu(II) system (H. Elzanowska, Ph. D. Thesis, Warsaw, 1957), this behaviour was explained by the simultaneous reduction of differently solvated ions in the solution where, depending on the degree of electrode coverage, a partial resolvation at the electrode surface can occur. The calculated dependence of the rate constant on the solvent composition is in accord with experimental values.     

Electrochemical investigation of the redox couple Sm(III)/Sm(II) on a tungsten electrode in molten LiF–CaF2–SmF3

This article is focused on the electrochemical investigation (cyclic voltammetry and related studies) of the redox couple Sm(III)/Sm(II) in an eutectic LiF–CaF₂ melt containing SmF₃. The first step of reduction for Sm(III) ions involving one electron exchange in soluble/soluble Sm(III)/Sm(II) system was found on a tungsten electrode. The study of the Sm(II)/Sm(0) electrode reaction was not feasible, due to insufficient electrochemical stability of LiF–CaF₂. The first step was found reversible at temperatures 1,075 and 1,125 K up to polarization rate 1 V/s and at temperature 1,175 K the process was reversible at all sweep rates applied in this study. The diffusion coefficients (D) of Sm(II) and Sm(III) ions were determined by cyclic voltammetry, showing that D decreases when oxidation state increase, while the activation energy of diffusion (E _a) increases. The standard rate constants of charge transfer (k _s) were calculated for the redox couple Sm(III)/Sm(II) at 1,075 and 1,125 K based on the data of cyclic voltammetry.