Fracture criteria under creep with strain history taken into account,and long-term strength modelling

In the present paper, we continue to study the nonlinear constitutive relation (CR) between the stress and strain proposed in [1] to describe one-dimensional isothermal rheological processes in the case of monotone variation of the strain (in particular, relaxation, creep, plasticity, and superplasticity). We show that this CR together with the strain fracture criterion (FC) leads to theoretical long-term strength curves (LSC) with the same qualitative properties as the typical experimental LSC of viscoelastoplastic materials. We propose two parametric families of fracture criteria in the case of monotone uniaxial strain, which are related to the strain fracture criterion (SFC) but take into account the strain increase history and the dependence of the critical strain on the stress. Instead of the current strain, they use other measures of damage related to the strain history by time-dependent integral operators. For any values of the material parameters, analytic studies of these criteria allowed us to find several useful properties, which confirm that they can be used to describe the creep fracture of different materials. In particular, we prove that, together with the proposed constitutive relations, these FC lead to theoretical long-term strength curves (TLSC) with the same qualitative properties as the experimental LSC. It is important that each of the constructed families of FC forms a monotone and continuous scale of criteria (monotonously and continuously depending on a real parameter) that contains the SFC as the limit case. Moreover, the criteria in the first family always provide the fracture time greater than that given by the SFC, the criteria in the second family always provide a smaller fracture time, and the difference can be made arbitrarily small by choosing the values of the control parameter near the scale end. This property is very useful in finding a more accurate adjustment of the model to the existing experimental data describing the fracture time dependence on the stress, temperature, radiation, and other factors: if these data are poorly described by the SFC, then one can choose a more appropriate criterion from the constructed families by varying the value of the control parameter smoothly and monotonously.     

Constitutive relation for rheological processes: Properties of theoretic creep curves and simulation of memory decay

We study the nonlinear stress-strain constitutive relation proposed earlier for describing one-dimensional isothermal rheological processes in the case of monotonous variation of the strain (in particular, viscoplasticity, creep, relaxation, plasticity, and superplasticity). This relation contains integral time operators of the strain and strain rate, which are the norms in the Lebesgue and Sobolev spaces equipped with special weight factors, one material function, and nine material parameters determined by the results of tests of the material for relaxation, creep, long-term strength, and constant-rate strain.We analytically inverse the constitutive relation and study the properties of the inverse operator. We derive the equation of creep curves corresponding to an arbitrary law of loading at the stage of passing from the zero stress to a given constant level. We study their dependence on the material parameters and the loading stage characteristics and find restrictions on the material parameters which ensure that the asymptotic behavior of the creep curves for large times is independent of the length of the loading stage and the specific law of stress variation during this stage, i.e., we find the conditions of the model memory decay in creep. Thus we have proved that the constitutive relation proposed above can adequately model both creep and the effect of the material memory decay.     

Properties of a nonlinear viscoelastoplastic model of Maxwell type with two material functions

General qualitative properties of quasistatic curves for creep, relaxation, strain, and others are studied analytically. These curves are obtained on the basis of a one-dimensional constitutive relation of Maxwell type. Some constraints are proposed for the material functions to adequately describe the typical properties of experimental curves for a wide class of viscoelastoplastic materials. The applicability of the proposed model to describe, in particular, the superplastic deformation is analyzed. The effects that cannot be described in the framework of this model are found and its applicability range is revealed.     

An Approach to Constructing a Rheological Model of a Strain-Hardening Medium

The one-dimensional constitutive equations of strain-hardening materials subject to nonlinear creep are derived. The solution is found using the hypothesis of unified deformation curve based on the similarity of the tensile and isochronic creep curves. A generalized rheological model is constructed which accounts for the instantaneous strain rate, loading rate, and the mode of strain hardening. This model is used to derive one-dimensional constitutive equations for linear viscoelastic, nonlinear viscoelastic, and linear- and nonlinear-hardening viscoelastoplastic materials. It is shown that the creep of linear viscoelastic and linear-hardening viscoelastoplastic materials is transient. For nonlinear viscoelastic and nonlinear-hardening viscoelastoplastic materials, all the characteristic stages of creep are present     

螺旋压缩弹簧应力松弛特性试验分析及其应用

本文通过应力松弛试验、理论推导及数值模拟研究了高温下螺旋压缩弹簧的应力松弛规律,并利用加速模型对工况下弹簧应力松弛服役寿命做出预测。首先,根据螺旋压缩弹簧的结构特点搭建了弹簧应力松弛连续动态测试装置,该装置不仅避免了传统测试方法存在的缺陷,而且能够保证试验过程中位移载荷恒定,并实时监测载荷变化。本文以某飞机舱门单锁机构中的螺旋压缩弹簧为试验对象进行了不同温度条件下的应力松弛试验,得到其松弛动力学曲线,并基于Arrhenius模型建立了弹簧在工况下的应力松弛服役寿命预测模型;其次,基于应力松弛和蠕变在本质上的一致性,结合金属材料蠕变规律并根据试验弹簧的受力特点,推导出用于描述试验材料松弛行为的蠕变本构方程,由试验结果获得该本构方程的材料常数;最后,通过该本构方程及材料常数,在ANSYS软件中对试验弹簧的松弛过程进行模拟,结果表明,模拟结果与试验结果误差不大于4%。因此,通过本文方法所建立的蠕变方程对弹簧在不同载荷条件下的应力松弛规律进行仿真分析具有一定的可行性与准确性。     

炭质泥岩泥化夹层的流变特性及长期强度

通过分析炭质泥岩泥化夹层的直剪流变实验成果,表明炭质泥岩泥化夹层的法向应力和剪应力为线性关系,存在统一的蠕变加速阶段来临时的极限应变量。基于老化理论,建立了适合弱层流变特性的流变力学模型,该模型可以描述初始蠕变、等速蠕变和加速蠕变三个阶段过程。依据蠕变加速阶段来临时的极限应变量得到了长期强度方程,从而为边坡变形分析和滑坡中长期预报提供了可靠的依据。     

Experimental identification and mathematical modeling of viscoplastic material behavior

Uniaxial torsion and biaxial torsion-tension experiments on thin-walled tubes were carried out to investigate the viscoplastic behavior of stainless steel XCrNi18.9. A series of monotonic tests under strain and stress control shows nonlinear rate dependence and suggests the existence of equilibrium states, which are asymptotically approached during relaxation and creep processes. Strain controlled cyclic experiments display various hardening and softening phenomena that depend on strain amplitude and mean strain. All experiments indicate that the equilibrium states within the material depend on the history of the input process, whereas the history-dependence of the relaxation and creep behavior appears less significant. From the experiments the design of a constitutive model of viscoplasticity is motivated: The basic assumption is a decomposition of the total stress into an equilibrium stress and a non-equilibrium overstress: At constant strain, the overstress relaxes to zero, where the relaxation time depends on the overstress in order to account for the nonlinear rate-dependence. The equilibrium stress is assumed to be a rate independent functional of the total strain history. Classical plasticity is utilized with a kinematic hardening rule of the Armstrong-Frederick type. In order to incorporate the amplitude-dependent hardening and softening behavior, a generalized arc length representation is applied [14]. The introduction of an additional kinematic hardening variable facilitates consideration of additional hardening effects resulting from the non-radiality of the input process. Apart from the common yield and loading criterion of classical plasticity, the proposed constitutive model does not contain any further distinction of different cases.The experimental data are sufficient to identify the material parameters of the constitutive model. The results of the identification procedure demonstrate the ability of the model to represent the observed phenomena with satisfactory approximation.     

Interrelation of creep and relaxation for nonlinearly viscoelastic materials: application to ligament and metal

Creep and stress relaxation are known to be interrelated in linearly viscoelastic materials by an exact analytical expression. In this article, analytical interrelations are derived for nonlinearly viscoelastic materials which obey a single integral nonlinear superposition constitutive equation. The kernel is not assumed to be separable as a product of strain and time dependent parts. Superposition is fully taken into account within the single integral formulation used. Specific formulations based on power law time dependence and truncated expansions are developed. These are appropriate for weak stress and strain dependence. The interrelated constitutive formulation is applied to ligaments, in which stiffness increases with strain, stress relaxation proceeds faster than creep, and rate of creep is a function of stress and rate of relaxation is a function of strain. An interrelation was also constructed for a commercial die-cast aluminum alloy currently used in small engine applications.     

General properties of relaxation curves in the case of the initial stage of strain with a constant rate in the linear heredity theory

Qualitative properties of relaxation curves are analytically studied in the case of linear-time strain at the initial stage. These curves are induced by an integral constitutive relation of viscoelasticity with an arbitrary relaxation function. Among these properties are the intervals of monotonicity and convexity, jumps, breaks, the asymptotics of curves, their dependence on the parameters of the initial stage of strain and on the properties of a relaxation function, the convergence type of a family of relaxation curves when the duration of the initial stage tends to zero, etc.     

Rate (time)-dependent deformation behavior: an overview of some properties of metals and solid polymers

The inelastic deformation behaviors of metals and polymers are discussed with the aim of finding a common base that would simplify academic and engineering analyses. Only monotonic loading conditions at room temperature are considered. For loading at different rates, nonlinear relations between loading rate and stress level, creep stress level and creep strain, and relaxation rate and stress were common to both type of materials. There are, of course, significant differences in elastic properties, strength levels and the strains involved. Special properties such as relaxation behaviors and creep anomalies can be qualitatively and quantitatively reproduced by the state variable model VBO (viscoplasticity theory based on overstress). Since experimental investigations typically concentrate on one particular aspect of inelastic deformation behavior such as creep or strain-rate dependence, it is often difficult to gather a comprehensive data set for a given material. In spite of this, considerable similitude in the deformation behavior of metals and polymers in various test conditions has nevertheless been established.     

Photomechanical behavior of cellulose acetate under viscoelastoplastic deformation

To confirm the possibilities of cellulose acetate as a material for a model analysis during viscoelastoplastic deformation, the time-dependent photomechanical properties of the material were examined by means of creep tests under constant stress and recovery tests after removal of stress. Consequently, though the strain and the fringe order of cellulose acetate during creep and recovery are greatly influenced by stress and room temperature, both of them can be described simply by a power function of time, and the coefficient of each of these formulas can be represented by a function of the ratio of active stress to yield stress only. The effect of temperature is included in the formulation of the yield stress. In addition, the strain and the fringe order can be represented by the viscous-viscoelastic model proposed by Findleyet al.,^1,2 in which both of them are divided into four components: elastic, plastic, time-dependent irrecoverable viscous and time-dependent recoverable viscoelastic. The relation between viscoelastic strain and viscoelastic fringe order, and the relation between viscous strain and viscous fringe order were verified to be equivalent to that between plastic strain and plastic fringe order, all of which do not depend on stress, temperature or time. Therefore, the strain distribution of cellulose acetate under viscoelastoplastic deformation can be determined directly from the value of the fringe order measured.     

Asymptotic behavior of creep curves in the Rabotnov nonlinear heredity theory under piecewise constant loadings and memory decay conditions

Some minimal prior constraints are imposed on the two material functions used in the Rabotnov nonlinear constitutive relation. The asymptotic dependence of creep curves on the characteristics of these material functions and on the parameters of loading programs is analytically studied in the case of stepped loadings. Some conditions are obtained for the case when these curves tend to the creep curve under instantaneous loading as t→∞. The importance of the limit value of the creep function derivative at infinity is analyzed for the plastic strain accumulation. A number of distinctions and additional possibilities are found compared to the linear integral relation of viscoelasticity.     

汽车玻璃高温蠕变特性的实验与理论研究

通过对汽车用挡风玻璃进行不同温度、不同应力水平下的单轴拉伸蠕变实验,揭示了其非线性蠕变变形特性.实验发现,不同温度和载荷下的蠕变曲线形状类似,高温(550℃～590℃)下该材料的减速蠕变变形不很明显,主要表现为稳态和加速蠕变变形,且其断裂数据符合Monkman-Grant关系,应力和温度对其影响不显著.基于实验结果,本文建立了非线性高温蠕变本构方程.理论预测与实验数据进行了比较,结果表明所提出的本构方程能较好地描述汽车玻璃高温蠕变变形的全过程.     

Stress analysis for a cavity flow of a memory fluid

The paper deals with the plane creeping flow of a viscoelastic liquid within an idealized rotor–stator system consisting of a rotating cylindrical drum and a fixed internal plate. The rheological properties of the liquid are modelled by a single-integral constitutive equation which considers a memory but disregards shear-thinning features. It is pointed out that the flow kinematics of such a memory fluid deviates only marginally from the Newtonian kinematics whereas the stress field is much more complicated. Therefore, the Newtonian velocity field is applied which can be represented in a closed analytical form using elementary complex-valued functions. The formulation allows computing the strain history and the resulting stress state with little numerical effort. A careful asymptotic analysis close to the corners yields details of the singular stress behaviour which differs markedly from the Newtonian characteristic. Finally, a second-order approximation being valid under certain restrictions leads to explicit analytical expressions also concerning the viscoelastic stress components. Altogether, a well-founded insight as regards the complex stress distribution and the effect of Deborah number is attained.     

NEPE推进剂低高应变率下改进的黏-超弹本构模型

为研究低高应变率条件下NEPE推进剂的力学特性,通过电子万能试验机和分离式霍普金森杆装置,对NEPE推进剂进行了准静态和冲击实验,得到了不同应变率下（1.667×10?4～4 500 s?1）的应力-应变曲线。实验结果表明NEPE推进剂具有明显的非线性弹性和应变率敏感性,随着应变率的增加,材料的强度、屈服应力和弹性模量显著增加,与低应变率相比,高应变率条件下材料的应变率敏感性更高。在高速冲击下材料内部瞬间产生大量热量无法及时散发出去,使得材料内部温度升高,导致材料出现软化效应,力学性能降低。本文建立了一个非线性黏超弹本构模型,其中采用Rivlin应变能函数来描述稳态超弹响应部分,采用积分型本构模型来描述材料的动态黏弹性响应部分,考虑到松弛时间具有应变率相关性,本文采用了一个率相关松弛函数来替代传统的Prony级数形式。使用极慢速压缩实验数据对本构模型中的超弹部分进行拟合获得超弹参数,然后用准静态和动态实验数据对本构模型进行拟合得出其他参数。不同应变率下的预测曲线与实验曲线具有较好的重合度,证明了该模型可以很好地描述低高应变率下NEPE推进剂的力学特性。     

考虑老化的混凝土粘弹性分数导数模型

混凝土是一种具有分形结构的材料。采用分数微积分模型来研究具有分形结构材料的老化规律目前尚未见到。本文的目的是采用含分数阶导数的类标准线性体来模拟考虑老化的混凝土的蠕变和松弛规律。给出了分数导数与Abel核之间的关系。讨论了类标准线性体的蠕变柔量和松弛模量及其在考虑老化的混凝土中的应用。与传统的混凝土流变模型相比较表明，类标准线性体可以更好地同时拟合混凝土在不同龄期的蠕变和松弛曲线。而且其形式简单、统一，在计算过程中需要调整的参数很少。可以预见，类标准线性体在混凝土的结构设计和计算中将有着广泛的应用前景。     

Rate dependent finite strain constitutive model of polyurea

Continuous loading and unloading experiments are performed at different strain rates to characterize the large deformation behavior of polyurea under compressive loading. In addition, uniaxial compression tests are carried out with multistep strain history profiles. The analysis of the experimental data shows that the concept of equilibrium path may not be applied to polyurea. This finding implies that viscoelastic constitutive models of the Zener type are no suitable for the modeling of the rate dependent behavior of polyurea. A new constitutive model is developed based on a rheological model composed of two Maxwell elements. The soft rubbery response is represented by a Gent spring while nonlinear viscous evolution equations are proposed to describe the time-dependent material response. The eight material model parameters are identified for polyurea and used to predict the experimentally-measured stress-strain curves for various loading and unloading histories. The model provides a good prediction of the response under monotonic loading over wide range of strain rates, while it overestimates the stiffness during unloading. Furthermore, the model predictions of the material relaxation and viscous dissipation during a loading-unloading cycle agree well with the experiments.     

Void growth in power-law creeping solids: Effect of surface diffusion and surface energy

This paper addresses the growth of a void in a nonlinearly creeping material in the presence of the void-surface energy effect and void-surface diffusion driven by surface curvature gradients. Large strain finite element analysis of the coupled problem indicates that microstructural variables (porosity and void aspect ratio), as well as macroscopic deformation rates are strongly affected by the relative strength of the void-surface energy effect and the void-surface diffusion process vis-a-vis the rate of creep deformation in the bulk of the solid. The phenomenon is characterized by two-dimensionless groups, one measuring the strength of the surface diffusion process with respect to the nonlinear creep deformation in the interior of the solid, and the other the magnitude of the surface energy of the void in relation to the applied load and the size of the void. The computations reveal a rich variety of solutions that reflect a wide range of external load, material, and geometric parameters. Classical void growth studies that ignore both surface diffusion and surface energy effects are shown to recover only one case of this family of solutions. The computations also serve to quantitatively evaluate recent constitutive theories for porous nonlinear materials that account for continuously evolving microstructure, but do not include surface diffusion or surface energy effects.     

Phenomenological nonlinear modelling of glassy polymers

Compared with the numerous works into the constitutive equations for the mechanical behaviour of metals, very little attention has been devoted to those of polymers. However, a model is required to describe both the complex shape of the stress–strain curves and strain rate sensitivity of glassy polymers. In this Note, a unified viscoelastic-viscoplastic model is presented in which the nonlinear pre-yield behaviour, the strain softening and the strain hardening are described by internal variables, in analogy with the models developed for metals. In order to check the predictive capability of the model, the numerical results are compared with the experimental data (monotone, creep and relaxation tests) of a typical amorphous glassy polymer. To cite this article: F. Zaïri et al., C. R. Mecanique 333 (2005).