Physical mechanism of silicon ablation with long nanosecond laser pulses at 1064 nm through time-resolved observation

Nanosecond (ns) laser ablation can provide a competitive solution for silicon micromachining in many applications. However, most of the previous studies focus on ns lasers at visible or ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. The research is very limited for ns lasers at infrared (e.g., 1064 nm) wavelengths (which often have the advantage of much lower cost per unit average output power), and the research is even less if the ns laser also has a long pulse duration on the order of ∼100 ns. In this paper, time-resolved observation using an ICCD (intensified charge-coupled device) camera has been performed to understand the physical mechanism of silicon ablation by 200-ns and 1064-nm laser pulses. This kind of work has been rarely reported in the literature. The research shows that for the studied conditions, material removal in laser silicon ablation is realized through surface vaporization followed by liquid ejection that occurs at a delay time of around 200-300 ns. The propagation speed is on the order of ∼1000 m/s for laser-induced plasma (ionized vapor) front, while it is on the order of ∼100 m/s or smaller for the front of ejected liquid. It has also been found that the liquid ejection is very unlikely due to phase explosion, and its exact underlying physical mechanism requires further investigations.     

Time-resolved study of ArF-excimer-laser ablation processes of polymethylmethacrylate

The processes of the ArF-excimer-laser ablation of PolyMethylMethAcrylate (PMMA) has been investigated. We studied the surface reflection of the polymer sample during UV photoablation. It was observed that a dark spot appeared in the reflected probe nitrogen laser beam (the reflection decreased below 4%) with about 5 ns delay after the onset of the ablating excimer pulse, while the transmitted probe laser intensity was increased to about 104%.A fast stroboscopic photographic arrangement was built for investigation of the ejection. A protuberance developed on the irradiated surface at about 100 ns delay. This expanded with about 600 m/s average velocity until 4 s, then contracted slowly, and finally at 16–18 s delay the ejection started. We also examined the process of the UV photoablation of PMMA in the vacuum chamber. In this case, the protuberance also appeared, but it left the surface nearly in one block at 3 s delay.Using a double-flash exposure photographic arrangement based on a dye laser, the propagation velocity of the shock waves developed in the air above the surface of the PMMA sample as a function of time was measured, and good agreement with shock wave theory was found. The pressure in the shock front can be as high as 1939 bar.     

Synthesis of ZnO thin films by 40 ps @ 532 nm laser pulses

The synthesis by pulsed laser deposition of ZnO thin films with a Nd:YAG laser system delivering pulses of 40 ps @ 532 nm is reported. The laser beam irradiated the target placed inside a vacuum chamber evacuated down to 1.33×10⁻¹ Pa. The incident laser fluence was of 28 J/cm² in a spot of 0.1 mm². The ablated material was collected onto double face polished (111) Si or quartz wafers placed parallel at a separation distance of 7 mm. The AFM, SEM, UV-Vis, FT-IR and absorption ellipsometry results indicated that we obtained pure ZnO films with a rather uniform surface, having an average roughness of 37 nm. We observed by SEM that particulates are present on ZnO film surface or embedded into bulk. Their density and dimension were intermediary between particulates observed on similar structures deposited with fs or ns laser pulses. We noticed that the density of the particulates is increasing while their average size is decreasing when passing from ns to ps and fs laser pulses. The average transmission in the UV-Vis spectral region was found to be higher than 85%.     

飞秒脉冲烧蚀单晶硅的超快动力学

利用基于Pump-probe系统的超快时间分辨阴影图的方法,研究了空气中飞秒激光烧蚀单晶硅的动力学过程。实验采用脉宽为50 fs、平均能量密度约35 J/cm2的单脉冲激光烧蚀单晶硅,获取飞秒激光烧蚀单晶硅过程中等离子体和冲击波的形成和发展过程的时间分辨阴影图。实验结果表明:飞秒激光烧蚀单晶硅导致其表面物质喷发的过程是不连续的,分为明显的两次喷发过程。这表明飞秒激光与单晶硅作用的过程中,在不同的时间段可能由不同的机制主导,在前期可能是多光子电离为主,在后期可能是由多光子效应和雪崩效应共同作用。研究还发现,延迟时间较长时,冲击波形状发生畸变。     

Surface ripple changes during Cr film ablation with a double ultrashort laser pulse

Surface modification is investigated experimentally by varying the time separation of double femtosecond laser radiation and surface ripples by varying the time separation and polarization direction of double pulses train. Nanometer-sized particles are formed during resolidification of the molten region when the second pulse arrives within 10 ps and the molten material is ejected much after 10 ps. The ripple in the outer region remains oblique to the sum of the vector direction of the two pulses when the time delay is zero. With time delay ranging from 0.5 to 10 ps and different polarization directions of the laser radiation, the ripple generally aligned perpendicular to the polarization direction of the electric field with multiple pulses in the vicinity of ablation threshold is effectively eliminated without fragments at the edge. Furthermore, remnant ripples on irradiated area at higher energies with the same polarization direction are removed by irradiation at a lower energy with each different polarization direction of double pulse. Based on morphological observations for different time delays, possible mechanisms of ripple formations and eliminations are suggested.     

多脉冲激光对胶合透镜热破坏效应研究

具有一定强度的激光辐照胶合透镜时可造成透镜的破坏.建立了多脉冲激光与材料相互作用的一维非稳态温度场模型，计算了瞬态温度场分布，并对胶合透镜前表面的熔融和胶合材料的软化进行了数值模拟研究.利用频率为10Hz，脉冲宽度为200ns，峰值功率为20MW的CO₂激光对胶合透镜进行辐照实验研究.实验表明，当激光辐照时间为12s时，胶合透镜前表面发生熔融破坏；当照射时间为30s时，胶合材料发生软化并出现彩色斑纹，透镜完全破坏，理论分析与实验结果相符. 关键词： 胶合透镜 激光辐照 激光破坏     

熔石英光学材料紫外皮秒激光损伤的瞬态特性研究

光学元件激光损伤是限制高功率激光装置输出能力的关键因素,为了理解光学元件激光损伤过程,提高光学元件抗激光损伤性能,利用偏振阴影显微镜成像技术和光电探测技术研究了紫外皮秒激光诱使熔石英光学元件损伤的时间分辨动力学过程。结果显示了紫外皮秒激光作用过程中冲击应力波的传输特性、瞬态吸收的演变过程以及裂缝的发展过程。结果表明,冲击应力波的传输速度约为6.9μm/ns;532nm波长的激光瞬态吸收在激光作用之后2.5μs时激光吸收达到最大值,之后缓慢下降,整个持续时间可达50μs以上;损伤裂纹在7.5ns时刻就基本停止增长。研究结果对理解皮秒激光的损伤机制有重要意义。     

纳秒强激光诱导K9玻璃表面损伤实验

 使用脉宽约10 ns的Nd:YAG激光器,研究低加工缺陷条件下K9光学玻璃在单激光脉冲作用下的损伤形貌。利用软边光阑加长程衍射的方法实现光斑整形,利用微分干涉光学显微镜和扫描电镜对样品前后表面的损伤形貌进行观察和成像,对比研究了K9光学玻璃前后表面的损伤形貌,分析了损伤机制。研究结果显示：在红外纳秒激光辐照下,加工缺陷是K9光学玻璃产生初始损伤的主要诱因;前表面的损伤主要表现为微坑及高温等离子体产生的冲蚀变色和表面微裂纹;后表面出现了均匀的亚波长周期性光栅结构,这种周期性结构是后表面损伤增长的主要诱因。     

脉宽对中红外激光带内损伤HgCdTe材料的影响

研究了脉宽对于中红外脉冲激光带内损伤碲镉汞（HgCdTe）材料阈值的影响,使用一维自洽模型对激光辐照HgCdTe材料程中的载流子数密度,载流子对数目流,载流子对能流,载流子温度和材料晶格温度等相关参数进行仿真计算。仿真结果表明,波长2.85 μm,脉宽30 ps～10 ns单脉冲激光带内辐照HgCdTe材料的损伤阈值为200～500 mJ/cm2。其中,300 ps～3 ns脉冲激光的损伤阈值相近,均为200 mJ/cm2且低于其他脉宽激光的损伤阈值。搭建实验光路并进行相关实验验证仿真模型的正确性。实验发现,波长2.85 μm、脉宽300 ps的单脉冲激光带内辐照HgCdTe材料的损伤阈值在200 mJ/cm2左右。相同条件下,10 ns单脉冲激光带内辐照HgCdTe材料的损伤阈值约474 mJ/cm2。百皮秒脉冲激光对HgCdTe材料的损伤过程结合了热击穿和光学击穿效应,其独特的毁伤机理加剧了材料的损伤。     

Surface damage morphology investigations of silicon under millisecond laser irradiation

The surface damage morphologies of single crystal silicon induced by 1064 nm millisecond Nd:YAG laser are investigated. After irradiation, the damage morphologies of silicon are inspected by optical microscope (OM) and atomic force microscope (AFM). The plasma emission spectra of the damaged region are detected by the spectrometer. It is shown that surface oxidation and nitridation have occurred during the interaction of millisecond laser with silicon. In addition, the damage morphologies induced by 2 ms and 10 ns pulse width laser are compared. The damage morphology obtained by 2 ms laser is an evident crater. Three types of damage morphologies are formed at different laser energy densities. The circular concentric ripples are found surrounding the rim of the crater. The spacing of the ripples is 15 ± 5 μm. Two types of cracks are observed: linear crack and circular crack. The linear crack is observed in the center of the damaged region which propagates to the periphery of the damaged region. The circular crack is located at the rim of the crater. The damage morphology induced by 10 ns laser is surface layer damage. The periodic linear waves are generated due to the interference between the incident beam and the scattered beam. The spacing of the ripples is 1.54 μm which is close to the incident laser wavelength 1.064 μm. The linear crack is located at the center of the damaged region. Furthermore, for the same laser energy density, the dimension of the damaged region and the crater depth induced by 2 ms laser are greater than that of 10 ns laser. It indicates that the damage mechanism under millisecond pulse laser irradiation is strongly different from the case of nanosecond pulse laser.     

Dynamics of laser-induced desorption from dielectric surfaces on a sub-picosecond timescale

The impact of ultra-short laser pulses induces intensity-dependent non-equilibrium processes in the surface region of dielectric targets, resulting in desorption of surface constituents. We report time-resolved studies on particle ejection from CaF₂ and BaF₂ targets.Pump-probe time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ToF MS) was used to measure the particle yields as a function of the delay time between pairs of sub-damage threshold laser pulses, thus obtaining the temporal dynamics of the laser-excited charged particle emission.In a correlative manner, the positive ion, electron and negative ion desorption yields dependence on the pump-probe delay time reveal a coherence peak around zero delay (similar to a two-pulse autocorrelation), accounting for the increase of the ion yield with laser intensity. Additionally, the measurements reveal a delayed peaks at ∼900 fs (BaF₂) and ∼300 fs (CaF₂). For comparison, we present time-resolved studies on electron emission from aluminum targets with pump and probe pulses below the damage threshold. The measurements show, again, the autocorrelation peak in the coherence region and an additional increase in the electron yield when the pulses are several picoseconds apart.The autocorrelation could also stand for the dephasing time of the electronic coherence, while the delayed peaks may reveal for the time needed for the collisional energy to be transferred to the lattice. The pump pulse induces a new unstable phase, which is further destabilized by the probe pulse.A corresponding qualitative picture for temporal dynamics of femtosecond (fs) laser-induced particle emission is proposed.     

脉冲激光辐照硅材料引起表面波纹的特性研究

叙述了激光与材料相互作用过程中引起相干受激光散射的机制,以及形成材料表面波纹的特性。在激光波长1．06μm、能量15mJ、光斑直径2mm、脉冲半峰全宽约10ns和入射方向为布儒斯特角的条件下,进行了脉冲激光辐照硅材料形成表面波纹的实验研究。在脉冲激光辐照硅材料表面功率密度略大于材料损伤阈值的条件下,发现了硅材料表面形成的平行等间距直线条纹结构。用光学显微镜和原子力显微镜分别测量了被辐照硅材料表面的波纹形貌特征。在假设硅材料表面波纹的产生与声波在材料中的传播速度有关的条件下,由声波传播速度和激光辐照硅材料的脉冲宽度较好地解释了材料表面形成条纹的宽度．并认为在形成表面波纹的过程中,热应力起主要作用。     

激光钝化对熔石英修复后损伤性能影响的实验研究

采用10.6 μupm 的 CO₂激光, 对单次激光脉冲辐照修复熔石英存在的烧蚀采用大光斑钝化去除. 经过辐照修复的区域置于前表面测试初始损伤阈值, 结果表明调制造成的损伤得到了一定程度的抑制; 辐照区域置于后表面修复后 熔石英的初始损伤阈值超过了基底的初始损伤阈值. 实验观察到了应力分布外扩, 同时明显减弱. 对损伤增长的测试说明, 经过激光熔融辐照后的损伤点, 当应力释放以后, 损伤扩展初期表现出指数增长趋势, 后期随着辐照次数的增加, 损伤增长不再明显, 并且趋于恒定值.     

表面Al膜污染物诱导熔石英表面损伤特性

在熔石英表面人工溅射一层Al膜污染物,分别测试污染前后熔石英基片在355 nm波长激光辐照下的损伤阈值,并采用透射式光热透镜技术、椭偏仪和光学显微镜研究了污染物Al膜的热吸收、厚度以及激光辐照前后熔石英的损伤形貌。用355 nm波长的脉冲激光分别辐照位于污染的熔石英和洁净的熔石英前后表面的损伤点,并用显微镜在线采集损伤增长图样,测试损伤点面积。实验表明:熔石英前表面的金属Al膜污染物导致基片损伤阈值的下降约30%,后表面的污染物导致基片下降约15%,位于熔石英样片后表面损伤点面积随激光辐照次数呈指数增长,而位于前表面的损伤点面积与激光脉冲辐照次数呈线性增长关系;带有污染的熔石英样片的增长因子比洁净的熔石英样片的增长因子高30%。     

Mechanisms and application of the Excimer laser doping from spin-on glass sources for USJ fabrication

In this work was investigated numerically and experimentally a simple laser doping method employing borosilicate (BSG) glass films as dopant sources which are deposited onto Si by the spin-coating technique. Both short (20 ns) and long (200 ns) pulse duration Excimer laser beams were used to deposit a large amount of energy in short time onto the near-surface region. Under suitable conditions, the irradiation leads to surface melting and dopant incorporation by liquid phase diffusion from the surface. Boron distribution profiles in the two-pulse duration regimes were studied as well as their electrical properties, and the junction formation of less than 25 nm in depth was demonstrated.     

激光触发伪火花开关的研究

通过等离子体建模仿真及物理实验结合的方式验证了激光触发伪火花开关的可行性。分别使用波长266 nm和532 nm的激光,对激光触发伪火花开关的最低激光触发能量、阳极着火延迟时间和时间跳动三项参数进行测试。在非聚焦模式下,仅调整激光能量,测得开关在波长266 nm激光触发下,最低触发能量为15 mJ,该触发能量下,阳极着火延迟时间约为340 ns,时间跳动约为40 ns;在波长532 nm激光触发下,最低触发能量为83 mJ,该触发能量下,阳极着火延迟时间约为420 ns,时间跳动约为60 ns。在维持实验平台不变的情况下,仅对入射激光进行聚焦,测得波长266 nm激光触发下,最低触发能量为4 mJ,当触发能量8 mJ时,阳极着火延迟时间190 ns,开关时间跳动小于1 ns;波长532 nm激光触发下,最低触发能量为6 mJ,当激光触发能量为8 mJ时,阳极着火延迟时间240 ns,开关时间跳动小于1 ns。     

Surface modifications of TiN coating by pulsed TEA CO2 and XeCl lasers

Interactions of a transversely excited atmospheric (TEA) CO₂ laser and an excimer XeCl laser, pulse durations ∼2 μs (initial spike FWHM ∼100 ns) and ∼20 ns (FWHM), respectively, with polycrystalline titanium nitride (TiN) coating deposited on high quality steel AISI 316, were studied. Titanium nitride was surface modified by the laser beams, with an energy density of 20.0 J/cm² (TEA CO₂ laser) and 2.4 J/cm² (XeCl laser), respectively. The energy absorbed from the CO₂ laser beam is partially converted to thermal energy, which generates a series of effects such as melting, vaporization of the molten material, shock waves, etc. The energy from the excimer XeCl laser primarily leads to fast and intense target evaporation. The calculated maximum temperatures on the target surface were 3770 and 6300 K for the TEA CO₂ and XeCl lasers, respectively. It is assumed that the TEA CO₂ laser affects the target deeper, for a longer time than the XeCl laser. The effects of the XeCl laser are confined to a localized area, near target surface, within a short time period.Morphological modifications of the titanium nitride surface can be summarized as follows: (i) both lasers produced ablation of the TiN coating in the central zone of the irradiated area and creation of grainy structure with near homogeneous distribution; (ii) a hydrodynamic feature, like resolidified droplets of the material, appeared in the surrounding peripheral zone; (iii) the process of irradiation, in both cases, was accompanied by appearance of plasma in front of the target.Target color modifications upon laser irradiation indicate possible chemical changes, possibly oxidation.     

Effects of laser fluence on near-field surface nanostructuring

In this work, molecular dynamics simulation is performed to explore the long-time (up to 5 ns) behavior of argon crystal in surface nanostructuring with an extremely localized near-field laser beam. The surface nanostructuring region is limited to tens of nanometers in diameter, although the simulated systems are much larger (comprised of more than 770,000 atoms). This study focuses on the long-time solidification and crystallization procedure, which is driven by the heat conduction in the material. The effect of the computational domain on the final nanostructure is studied in detail. Different laser fluences are used in the simulation to explore how and to what extent the energy input affects the dynamic melting behavior and the final dimension and profile of the surface nanostructure. In-depth theoretical investigation gives satisfactory explanation of the effect of the laser fluence on the melting depth. Spot-like structural defects in the sub-surface region are observed and investigated until full solidification.     

Formation of periodic surface nanostructures on Ti:Al2O3 crystals using femtosecond laser pulses

Periodic surface nanostructures are observed on Ti³⁺:Al₂O₃ single crystals that have been irradiated by a single focused beam from a femtosecond pulsed laser (wavelength: 800 nm; pulse duration: 130 and 152 fs). Atomic force microscopy images of single-ablated zones and modified structures created by fixing and translating samples through the focal region of a linearly polarized laser beam reveal self-organized periodic surface nanostructures (ripples) with a subwavelength spacing, which are oriented perpendicular to the electric-field vector of the laser beam. The period of the subwavelength ripples obtained by linearly polarized laser irradiation varies from ∼λ/5 to 2λ/5 (λ: incident laser wavelength) depending on the laser pulse energy. This phenomenon can be explained by assuming that the incident light field interferes with the electric field of electron plasma waves propagating inside the material; this interference periodically modulates the electron plasma density and modifies the surface ablation. In addition, for the first time, we observe screw-shaped nanostructures in the focal spot of circularly polarized beam irradiation. The morphology of these nanostructures appears to reflect the circular polarization of the laser light.     

Slip damage of silicon wafers subjected to continuous infrared laser irradiation

Laser irradiation can cause damage to solids, such as slipping, cracking, melting, and ablation. Silicon crystals are brittle, so slipping is a serious problem because it can easily result in fracture. This study investigates the amount of continuous near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiance that induces slip damage in a single-crystal silicon wafer. For this purpose we developed a simulation model based on heat transfer and thermo-elastic analyses. To verify the simulation model, silicon wafer specimens were irradiated by a fiber laser beam (of wavelength 1065 nm), and the surface morphology after laser beam irradiation was inspected using optical microscopy (OM). The irradiation time was fixed at 10 s, and nine different irradiances from 180 W/cm² to 380 W/cm² were tested in steps of 25 W/cm². No slip surface was found after exposure to the irradiances up to 230 W/cm², but straight slips in the <110> direction appeared at the irradiances of 255 W/cm² and above. These experimental findings agreed well with the simulation.