Reconciling the origin of the transient evoked ototacoustic emission in humans

A pervasive theme in the literature for the transient evoked otoacoustic emission (TEOAE) measured from the human ear canal has been one of the emission arising solely (or largely) from a single, place-fixed mechanism. Here TEOAEs are reported measured in the absence of significant stimulus contamination at stimulus onset, providing for the identification of a TEOAE response beginning within the time window that is typically removed by windowing. Contrary to previous studies, it was found that in humans, as has previously been found in guinea pig, the TEOAE appears to arise from two generation mechanisms, the relative contributions of these two mechanisms being time and stimulus-level dependent. The method of windowing the earliest part of the ear canal measurement to remove stimulus artifact removes part of the TEOAE i.e., much of the component arising from a nonlinear generation mechanism. This reconciliation of TEOAE origin is consistent with all OAEs in mammals arising in a stimulus-level dependent manner from two mechanisms of generation, one linear, one nonlinear, as suggested by Shera and Guinan [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 105, 782-798 (1999)].     

自适应信号增强在瞬态诱发耳声发射信号检测中的应用

耳声发射是近年来耳科学领域的研究热点。它已成为临床听力筛选和诊断耳蜗病变最为有效的手段之一。耳声发射信号的信噪比和相关率是临床诊断的重要依据。文中将自适应信号增强技术引入到对瞬态诱发耳声发射信号的检测中,并提出了一个基于最小均方算法的实用的自适应信号增强器结构。通过对106例受试耳所进行的瞬态诱发耳声发射信号检测,结果表明,自适应信号增强技术与传统的相干平均技术相比有更好的增强信号和抑制噪声的性能。利用自适应信号增强可以提高瞬态诱发耳声发射信号的信噪比增速、减少检测所需叠加次数、检测用时可缩短近一半。     

Transient-evoked otoacoustic emission generators in a nonlinear cochlea

This study focuses on the theoretical prediction and experimental evaluation of the latency of transient-evoked otoacoustic emissions. Response components with different delay have been identified in several studies. The main generator of the transient response is assumed to be coherent reflection from cochlear roughness near the resonant place. Additional components of different latency can be generated by different mechanisms. Experimental data are re-analyzed in this study to evaluate the dependence of the latency on stimulus level, for each component of the response, showing that previous estimates of the otoacoustic emission latency were affected by systematic errors. The latency of the emission from each generator changes very little with stimulus level, whereas their different growth rate causes sharp changes of the single-valued latency, estimated as the time of the absolute maximum of the bandpass filtered response. Results of passive linear models, in which gain and bandwidth of the cochlear amplifier are strictly related, are incompatible with the observations. Although active linear models including delayed stiffness terms do predict much slower dependence of latency on the stimulus level, a suitable nonlinear model should be designed, capable of decoupling more effectively the dependence on stimulus level of amplitude and phase of the otoacoustic response.     

双向滤波法去除瞬态诱发耳声发射检测中的刺激伪迹

在瞬态诱发耳声发射信号检测中,去除刺激伪迹最传统的方法是“引出的非线性响应”法。但因其赖以成立的假设条件无法精确成立,会造成明显刺激伪迹残留,限制了对与刺激伪迹有重叠的短潜伏期高频耳蜗响应的检测。窗函数法和小波变换方法可在一定程度上减少刺激伪迹残留,但仍未解决对高频响应的检测问题。本文提出了双向滤波法去除刺激伪迹,避免了滤波时刺激伪迹影响后传的趋势。物理模拟实验及106例瞬态诱发耳声发射信号实测结果表明:与现有方法相比,该方法可进一步减少刺激伪迹残留,拓展不受刺激伪迹污染的信号区间;并能检测出潜伏期更短、强度更大的高频瞬态诱发耳声发射信号。同时,该方法简便易行,便于在实时检测系统中实现。     

Transient evoked otoacoustic emission latency and cochlear tuning at different stimulus levels

Cochlear latency has been evaluated in young adults by time-frequency analysis of transient evoked otoacoustic emissions recorded using the nonlinear acquisition mode at different levels of the click stimulus. Objective, even if model-dependent, estimates of cochlear tuning have been obtained from the otoacoustic latency estimates. Transmission-line cochlear models predict that the transient-evoked otoacoustic emission latency is dependent on the stimulus level, because the bandwidth of the cochlear filter (tuning) depends on the local cochlear excitation level due to nonlinear damping. The results of this study confirm the increase of tuning with increasing frequency and show clearly the decrease of latency and tuning with increasing stimulus level. This decrease is consistent with the expected relation between the slowing down of the traveling wave near the tonotopic place and the cochlear excitation amplitude predicted by cochlear models including nonlinear damping. More specifically, these results support the models in which nonlinear damping consists of a quadratic term and a constant positive term.     

Level dependence of distortion product otoacoustic emission phase is attributed to component mixing

Distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) measured in the ear canal represent the vector sum of components produced at two regions of the basilar membrane by distinct cochlear mechanisms. In this study, the effect of stimulus level on the 2f(1)?- f(2) DPOAE phase was evaluated in 22 adult subjects across a three-octave range. Level effects were examined for the mixed DPOAE signal measured in the ear canal and after unmixing components to assess level effects individually on the distortion (generated at the f(1), f(2) overlap) and reflection (at f(dp)) sources. Results show that ear canal DPOAE phase slope becomes steeper with decreasing level; however, component analysis further explicates this result, indicating that interference between DPOAE components (rather than a shift in mechanics related to distortion generation) drives the level dependence of DPOAE phase measured in the ear canal. The relative contribution from the reflection source increased with decreasing level, producing more component interference and, at times, a reflection-dominated response at the lowest stimulus levels. These results have implications for the use of DPOAE phase to study cochlear mechanics and for the potential application of DPOAE phase for clinical purposes.     

Distortion product otoacoustic emission fine structure is responsible for variability of distortion product otoacoustic emission contralateral suppression

Alteration of the distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) level by a contralateral sound, which is known as DPOAE contralateral suppression, has been attributed to the feedback mechanism of the medial olivocochlear efferents. However, the limited dynamic range and large intra- and intersubject variabilities in the outcome of the measurement restrict its application in assessing the efferent function. In this study, the 2f(1)-f(2) DPgram was measured with a high frequency resolution in six human ears, which exhibits a fine structure with the quasiperiodic appearance of peaks and dips. In the presence of contralateral noise, the DPOAE level increased, decreased, or remained unchanged depending on the frequency. At the peaks, DPOAEs were mostly suppressed with a larger change, while those at the dips had greater variance, with increased occurrence of enhancement or no change. The difference between the peak and dip frequencies in the DPOAE-level change was significant. A switch from suppression to enhancement of the DPOAE level or vice versa with a small change in frequency was noted. These results imply that the DPOAE fine structure is a main source of the variability in DPOAE contralateral suppression measurement. The study suggests that the DPOAE contralateral suppression test would be improved if it is conducted for frequencies at major peaks of the DPOAE fine structure.     

Evidence for basal distortion-product otoacoustic emission components

Distortion-product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were measured with traditional DP-grams and level/phase (L/P) maps in rabbits with either normal cochlear function or unique sound-induced cochlear losses that were characterized as either low-frequency or notched configurations. To demonstrate that emission generators distributed basal to the f(2) primary-tone contribute, in general, to DPOAE levels and phases, a high-frequency interference tone (IT) was presented at 1/3 of an octave (oct) above the f(2) primary-tone, and DPOAEs were re-measured as "augmented" DP-grams (ADP-grams) and L/P maps. The vector difference between the control and augmented functions was then computed to derive residual DP-grams (RDP-grams) and L/P maps. The resulting RDP-grams and L/P maps, which described the DPOAEs removed by the IT, supported the notion that basal DPOAE components routinely contribute to the generation of standard measures of DPOAEs. Separate experiments demonstrated that these components could not be attributed to the effects of the 1/3-oct IT on f(2), or DPOAEs generated by the addition of a third interfering tone. These basal components can "fill in" the lesion estimated by the commonly employed DP-gram. Thus, ADP-grams more accurately reveal the pattern of cochlear damage and may eventually lead to an improved DP-gram procedure.     

Using the short-time correlation coefficient to compare transient- and derived, noise-evoked otoacoustic emission temporal waveforms

Transient-evoked otoacoustic emissions (TEOAEs) and derived, noise-evoked otoacoustic emissions (derived-NEOAEs) were measured in seven normally hearing subjects. The evoked OAEs were all recorded at three excitation levels chosen to ensure that the OAE level curve compressive region was reached. The short-time correlation coefficient (STCC) was used to compare the OAE waveforms at different excitation levels, and thus estimate the time over which the response exceeds the noise level. The short-time correlation for TEOAEs is significant for longer than it is for NEOAEs, particularly in some individuals, and the STCC allows this to be quantified. This suggests that derived NEOAEs do not display the highly synchronized dominant frequencies often seen in TEOAEs. This has been confirmed by examining the derived frequency responses for the two types of excitation. Conventional TEOAEs thus appear to measure a combination of two conceptually different processes, while NEOAEs measure just one.     

Developing standards for distortion product otoacoustic emission measurements

Characteristics of distortion product otoacoustic emission (DPOAE) measurements were investigated by comparing responses from two different emission measurement systems in 40 volunteers (78 ears) and making test-retest measurements of each system in 20 ears. For transformation of results between systems, it was shown that the minimum data set consisted of input-output (growth) functions obtained by stepping stimulus levels across a wide range, for each set of stimulus frequencies (1-8 kHz). Linear transformations were considered which involved either recalibration of the emission amplitude (vertical transformation) or of the stimulus levels (horizontal transformation). Horizontal transformations provided better agreement between growth functions from the two systems. For frequencies 4-8 kHz, the means of the horizontal shifts required ranged from 8 to 14 dB, clearly exceeding test-retest variability. The optimal horizontal transformation was derived and applied uniformly to all emission measurements; correlations r=0.81-0.89 were found between transformed emission amplitudes. To minimize the necessity for such transformations and to reduce the variability found both within and between systems, development of standardized equipment and methods is suggested for DPOAE measurements, including: (1) an optimized in-ear probe assembly; (2) use of intensity calibration; and (3) a focus on emission "threshold" measurement and analysis.     

Calibration of otoacoustic emission probe microphones

Recently, investigators of otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) have shown interest in measuring OAEs to frequencies higher than 10 kHz. Most commercial instruments used to measure OAEs do not specify the microphone frequency response at higher frequencies, nor does their typically integrated design make it convenient to measure it. OAE probes manufactured by Etymotic Research have reasonably constant microphone sensitivity up to about 10 kHz and allow direct access to both the sound sources and microphone preamplifier output. A detailed procedure for calibrating the Etymotic Research OAE probe microphone to extend its usable frequency range to frequencies up to 20 kHz is described.     

Temporal suppression of the click-evoked otoacoustic emission level-curve

The click-evoked otoacoustic emission (CEOAE) level-curve grows linearly for clicks below 40-60 dB and saturates for higher inputs. This study investigates dynamic (i.e., time-dependent) features of the CEOAE level-curve by presenting a suppressor-click less than 8 ms before the test-click. An alteration of the CEOAE level-curve, designated here as temporal suppression, was observed within this time period, and was shown to depend on the levels and the temporal separation of the two clicks. Temporal suppression occurred for all four subjects tested, and resulted in a vertical offset from the unsuppressed level-curve for test-click levels greater than 50 dB peak-equivalent level (peSPL). Temporal suppression was greatest for suppressors presented 1-4 ms before the test click, and the magnitude and time scale of the effect were subject dependent. Temporal suppression was furthermore observed for the short- (i.e., 6-18 ms) and long-latency (i.e., 24-36 ms) regions of the CEOAE, indicating that temporal suppression similarly affects synchronized spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SSOAEs) and purely evoked CEOAE components. Overall, this study demonstrates that temporal suppression of the CEOAE level-curve reflects a dynamic process in human cochlear processing that works on a time scale of 0-10 ms.     

Temperature dependence of frog spontaneous otoacoustic emissions

Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions are recorded from frog ears at various body temperatures. Frequency spectra and amplitude distributions of emissions are determined. Both power and frequency of emission signals show a strong temperature dependence.     

Mechanism for bandpass frequency characteristic in distortion product otoacoustic emission generation

It is commonly observed that the levels of the 2f1-f2 and the other mf1-nf2 (m = n + 1 = integer) distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) initially increase in level for fixed f2 as fl -->f2, starting at f1 相似文献   

On the detection of early cochlear damage by otoacoustic emission analysis

Theoretical considerations and experimental evidence suggest that otoacoustic emission parameters may be used to reveal early cochlear damage, even before it can be diagnosed by standard audiometric techniques. In this work, the statistical distributions of a set of otoacoustic emission parameters chosen as candidates for the early detection of cochlear damage (global and band reproducibility, response level, signal-to-noise ratio, spectral latency, and long-lasting otoacoustic emission presence) were analyzed in a population of 138 ears. These ears have been divided, according to a standard audiometric test, in three classes: (1) ears of nonexposed bilaterally normal subjects, (2) normal ears of subjects with unilateral noise-induced high-frequency hearing loss, and (3) their hearing impaired ears. For all analyzed parameters, a statistically significant difference was found between classes 1 and 2. This difference largely exceeds the difference observed between classes 2 and 3. This fact suggests that the noise exposure, which was responsible for the unilateral hearing loss, also caused subclinical damage in the contralateral, audiometrically normal, ear. This is a clear indication that otoacoustic emission techniques may be able to early detect subclinical damages.     

Wavelet and matching pursuit estimates of the transient-evoked otoacoustic emission latency

Different time-frequency techniques may be used to investigate the relation between latency and frequency of transient-evoked otoacoustic emissions. In this work, the optimization of these techniques and the interpretation of the experimental result are discussed. Time-frequency analysis of click-evoked otoacoustic emissions of 42 normal-hearing young subjects has been performed, using both wavelet and matching pursuit algorithms. Wavelet techniques are very effective to provide fast and reliable evaluation of the average latency of large samples of subjects. A major advantage of the matching pursuit technique, as observed by Jedrzejczak et al. [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115, 2148-2158 (2004)], is to provide detailed information about the time evolution of the response of single ears at selected frequencies. A hybrid matching pursuit algorithm that includes Fourier spectral information was developed, capable of speeding-up computation times and of identifying "spurious" atoms, whose latency-frequency relation is apparently anomalous. These atoms could be associated with several known phenomena, either intrinsic, such as intermodulation distortion, spontaneous emissions and multiple internal reflections, or extrinsic, such as instrumental noise, linear ringing and the acquisition window onset. A correct interpretation of these phenomena is important to get accurate estimates of the otoacoustic emission latency.     

Objective estimates of cochlear tuning by otoacoustic emission analysis

A new method is presented for estimating cochlear tuning starting from measurements of either the transient evoked otoacoustic emission latency or the spontaneous otoacoustic emission minimal spacing. This method could be useful in obtaining indirect information about the tuning curve, particularly for subjects that, like neonates, cannot be studied with psycho-acoustical techniques. Theoretical models of the acoustic transmission along the cochlea based on the transmission line formalism predict a relation between the otoacoustic emission latency and the frequency. This relation depends on the tuning curve, i.e., the frequency dependence of the quality factor of the cochlear resonances. On the other hand, models for the generation of spontaneous emissions based on the concept of coherent scattering from cochlear random inhomogeneities imply an independent relation between the tuning curve and the minimal frequency spacing between spontaneous emissions. In this study, experimental measurements of the otoacoustic emission latency and of the minimal spacing between spontaneous emissions are presented. Theoretical relations are derived, which connect these two measured quantities and the tuning curve. The typically longer latency of neonates implies a higher degree of tuning at high levels of stimulation.     

The behavior of evoked otoacoustic emissions during and after postural changes

Click-evoked and stimulus frequency otoacoustic emissions (CEOAEs and SFOAEs, respectively) were studied in humans during and after postural changes. The subjects were tilted from upright to a recumbent position (head down 30 deg) and upright again. Due to the downward posture change, CEOAEs showed a phase increase (80 deg at 1 kHz) and a level decrease (0.5 at 1 kHz), especially for frequency components below 2 kHz. For SFOAEs, the typical ripple pattern showed a positive shift along the frequency axis, which can be interpreted as a phase shift of the inner-ear component of the microphone signal (90 deg at 1 kHz). This also occurred mainly for frequencies below 2 kHz. The altered posture is thought to cause an increase of the intracranial pressure, and consequently of the intracochlear fluid pressure, which results in an increased stiffness of the stapes system. The observed emission changes are in agreement with predictions from a model in which the stiffness of the cochlear windows was altered. For CEOAEs, the time to regain stability after a downward turn was of the order of 30 s, while this took about 20 s after an upward turn. For SFOAEs, this asymmetry was not found to be present (about 11 s, both for up- and downward turns).     

Tamm-Frank equation derived from expressions for transient radiation

The expressions for transient radiation intensity are analyzed in the case of a plane interface when the condition of Cerenkov radiation is satisfied. It is shown that they include the expression for Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation in a transparent medium modified by the interface. Institute of Physical Research, Armenian National Academy of Sciences, Ashtarak. Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Radiofizika, Vol. 40, No. 9, pp. 1126–1144, September, 1997.