The internal radiation of a planetary atmosphere

We show how to find the spherical harmonics moments of the radiation at any point within a homogeneous layer embedded in an inhomogeneous planetary atmosphere given only the moments at the boundaries of the layer. The result is used to determine the heating rate within a cloud in a realistic model atmosphere. It is also used to estimate the visibility of the ground from various points in the cloud as a function of view angle. The strength of the method is that the multiple scattering problem for the full atmosphere need be solved only, independently of the proposed applications.     

Classification of celestial bodies within planetary systems

This paper suggests a set of general criteria for classifying celestial bodies that are elements of planetary systems. An additional criterion based on the phenomenological formula of the distribution of planets in the Solar system is suggested for the Solar system for ascertaining whether celestial bodies belong to the category of planets or dwarf planets.     

Super-Earths: a new class of planetary bodies

Super-Earths, a class of planetary bodies with masses ranging from a few Earth-masses to slightly smaller than Uranus, have recently found a special place in exoplanetary science. Being slightly larger than a typical terrestrial planet, super-Earths may have physical and dynamical characteristics similar to those of Earth whereas unlike terrestrial planets, they are relatively easier to detect. Because of their sizes, super-Earths can maintain moderate atmospheres and possibly dynamic interiors with plate tectonics. They also seem to be more common around low-mass stars where the habitable zone is in closer distances. This article presents a review of the current state of research on super-Earths, and discusses the models of the formation, dynamical evolution, and possible habitability of these objects. Given the recent advances in detection techniques, the detectability of super-Earths is also discussed, and a review of the prospects of their detection in the habitable zones of low-mass stars is presented.     

The internal structure of plasmons

The concept of an internal wave function for the plasmon is introduced and discussed. Explicit results are presented for two and three dimensions in the degenerate and nondegenerate limit, respectively. The reciprocal Fermi wavevectorK _F ^?1 and the thermal wavelengthK _T ^?1 are found to define the length scale and hence the size of the plasmon. A possible surface anomaly is indicated.     

The internal structure of turbulence

A general solution of the Boltzmann equation is presented. On its basis, a hypothesis about the internal structure of turbulence is proposed. An expression for the turbulent-friction coefficient is obtained. The criterion on the basis of which the solution of the Boltzmann equation can be attributed to the turbulent mode of flow is formulated.     

On the internal temperature distributions in radiation-heated bodies

An approximate but fairly accurate method of finding the temperature field in a multi-dimensional, radiation-heated body is proposed. A relationship law is derived which, in the opinion of the authors, makes it possible to sound the entire temperature field inside a heated (or cooled) body.     

The greenhouse effect of planetary atmospheres

Summary The greenhouse effect of the atmosphere is the main factor of possible climate changes of anthropogenic origin. The growing pollution of the atmosphere leads to an increase of the concentration of such gaseous components as sulphur and carbon dioxides, carbon oxide, halocarbons, nitrous oxides, etc. Of great importance is also the consideration of the aerosols, both injected directly into the atmosphere and formed as a result of the conversion of chemical gas into particles (first of all, it concerns the sulphate aerosol). All the above gaseous components, as well as aerosols, have the absorption bands in the IR spectral range, which determines their contribution to the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere, mainly governed by water vapour and carbon dioxide. The traditional attention to the problem of the CO₂ contribution to the greenhouse effect has somewhat overshadowed the significance of the different components. The data characterizing the significance of the different components of the greenhouse effect are considered. The results of studying the absorption spectra of methane, nitrous oxides, sulphuric gas, ammonia, nitric-acid vapours and other components are discussed. The assessments of their contribution to the greenhouse effect are given. The important role of the small-size fraction of the atmospheric aerosols as a factor of the greenhouse effect is discussed. Both the analysis of the causes of the Earth's climate variability and the relevant investigation of the atmospheric greenhouse effect determine the expediency of analysing the conditions of the greenhouse effect formation on other planets, that is the consideration of different planetary atmospheres as the specific models of the greenhouse effect formation. To solve such a problem, data are needed on the composition and structural parameters of the atmospheres and the quantitative characteristics of the absorption spectra associated with the specific conditions of various atmospheres. In connection with this, laboratory studies of the IR absorption spectra of the synthetical CO₂ atmospheres were carried out. Some results from these studies are discussed. Calculations of the thermal-emission fluxes' spectral distribution in the atmospheres of Mars, Venus and Jupiter were performed to analyse the conditions of the greenhouse effect formation in the atmospheres of these planets. Calculations were made which concern the optical properties of Venus clouds and dust aerosols of Mars,i.e. the contribution of clouds and aerosols into the greenhouse effect was analysed. The conditions favourable to the antigreenhouse effect formation are specified.

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Riassunto L'effetto serra dell'atmosfera è il fattore principale di possibili cambiamenti climatici di origine antropogenica. Il crescente inquinamento dell'atmosfera porta all'aumento della concentrazione di componenti gassosi come anidride carbonica e anidride solforosa, ossido di carbonio, alocarboni, protossido d'azoto, ecc. Di grande importanza è anche la considerazione dell'aerosol sia introdotto direttamente nell'atmosfera che formato come risultato della conversione di gas chimico in particelle (prima di tutto, riguardo l'aerosol di zolfo). Tutti i suddetti componenti gassosi, come pure l'aerosol, hanno bande di assorbimento nell'infrarosso, e ciò determina il loro contributo all'effetto serra dell'atmosfera, regolato principalmente dal vapore acqueo e dall'anidride carbonica. L'attenzione tradizionalmente rivolta al problema del contributo della CO₂ all'effetto serra ha qualche volta lasciato in ombra il significato di componenti diversi. Si considerano i dati che caratterizzano il significato di componenti diversi all'effetto serra. Si discutono i risultati dello studio degli spettri di assorbimento del metano, del protossido d'azoto, del gas solforico, dell'ammoniaca, dei vapori di acido nitrico e di altri componenti. Si danno valutazioni dei loro contributi all'effetto serra. Si discute l'importante ruolo della frazione di piccole dimensioni dell'aerosol atmosferico come fattore dell'effetto serra. Sia l'analisi delle cause della variabilità del clima terrestre che l'importante studio dell'effetto serra dell'atmosfera determinano l'utilità di analizzare le condizioni di formazione dell'effetto serra in altri pianeti, cioè le diverse atmosfere planetarie come modelli specifici per la formazione dell'effetto serra. Per risolvere tale problema, sono necessari dati sulla composizione e sui parametri strutturali delle atmosfere e le caratteristiche quantitative degli spettri di assorbimento associati con le condizioni specifiche delle varie atmosfere. In relazione a ciò, sono stati compiuti studi in laboratorio degli spettri di assorbimento IR di atmosfere artificiali con CO₂. Si discutono alcuni risultati di questi studi. Si sono eseguiti calcoli della distribuzione spettrale di flussi ad emissione termica nelle atmosfere di Marte, Venere e Giove, per analizzare le condizioni di formazione dell'effetto serra nell'atmosfera di questi pianeti. Si sono eseguiti calcoli che riguardano le proprietà ottiche delle nubi di Venere e dell'aerosol della polvere di Marte, cioè si è analizzato il contributo di aerosol e nubi alla formazione dell'effetto serra. Si specificano le condizioni favorevoli alla formazione dell'effetto anti-serra.

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Резюме Оранжерейный эффект атмосферы представляет основной фактор возможных климатических изменений антропогенного происхождения. Растущее загрязнение атмосферы приводит к увеличению концентрации таких газообразных компонент, как двуокиси серы и углерода, окись углерода, голоуглероды, окислы азота и др. Важное внимание уделяется также аэрозолям, которые инжектируются непосредственно в атмосферу и образуются в результате превращения химических газов в частицы (прежде всего, сульфатный аэрозоль). Все вышеуказанные газообразные компоненты, а также аэрозоли имеют зоны поглощения в инфракрасной спектральной области, которая определяет их вклад в оранжерейный эффект атмосферы, определяемый, в основном, парами воды и двуокисью углерода. Традиционное внимание к проблеме концентрации CO₂ при анализе оранжерейного эффекта отчасти уменьшает значимость других компонент. Рассматриваются данные, характеризующие значимость различных компонент для оранжерейного эффекта. Обсуждаются результаты исследования спектров поглощения метана, окислов азота, серного газа, аммиака, паров азотной кислоты и других компонент. Приводятся оценки их вклада в оранжерейный эффект. Обсуждается важная роль атмосферного аэрозоля в оранжерейном эффекте. Анализ причин непостоянства климата на Земле и исследование атмосферного оранжерейного эффекта позволяют определить целесообразность анализа условий образования оранжерейного эффекта на других планетах, посредством рассмотрения различных планетарных атмосфер, как специальных моделей образования оранжерейного эффекта. Для решения такой проблемы необходимы данные по составу и спектраляным параметрам атмосфер и количественные характеристики спектров поглощения, связанные с условиями различных атмосфер. В связи с этим были проведены лабораторные исследования спектров инфракрасного поглощения искусственных CO₂ атмосфер. Обсуждаются некоторые результаты этих исследований. С целью анализа условий образования оранжерейного эффекта в атмосферах Марса, Венеры и Юпитера проведены вычисления спектрального распределения потоков теплового излучения в атмосферах этих планет. Анализируется вклад облаков на Венере и пылевых аэрозолей на Марсе в оранжерейный эффект. Определяются условия, благоприятные для образования антиоранжерейного эффекта.

     

The inconsistency of a model for internal structure of black holes

The recent claim that a black hole can be treated as a relativistic gas of micro black holes (planckions) is shown to be physically inconsistent and in fact is grossly in error. Any deductions made about black holes from such models must therefore be treated with caution.     

Determination of the internal structure of valons

We determine the internal structure functions of the valons introduced by Hwa and coworkers, using low-p _t data and Regge model constraints. Our calibration reaction is the fragmentation processp→π^? observed in 70 GeV/cK ⁺ p interactions. The fitted valon structure parameters are used to make successful predictions for various other fragmentation processes (p→π⁺ andp→K ⁺). A comparison with experimental data of the DISvW ₂ (x)-values implied by this same fit, indicates that soft processes probe the nucleon typically at aQ ²-value of ～1 GeV². This finding supports the hypothesis that soft hadronic reactions are useful (and often unique) tools to learn about hadron quark structure.     

Hyperfine structure in internal rotor molecules

The theory of magnetic hyperfine interactions in internal rotor molecules with one internal degree of freedom has been developed as basis for the interpretation of hyperfine structure in the microwave spectra of these molecules. It has been shown that the internal rotation modifies the familiar nuclear spin-spin and spin-rotation interactions. Explicit expressions for the hyperfine energy matrix elements and coupling constants are derived for the methanol molecule.     

Particles with internal structure: The geometry of classical motions and conservation laws

Classical models of elementary particles endowed with internal structure are constructed using the coadjoint orbit method. The geometry of minimal coupling is introduced and the Wong equations are recovered. Conservation laws are derived in the case of symmetric external Einstein-Yang-Mills fields. As a non-trivial example, classical motions in a B.P.S.T. instanton's field are investigated.     

Multiple scattering of electromagnetic waves by the internal surfaces of turbulent bodies of revolution

Using the method of statistical modeling, we have solved the problem of multiple scattering of electromagnetic waves by THE internal surfaceS of bodies of revolution: a cone and paraboloids of the second and fourth orderS along whose generatrices turbulent inhomogeneities move. The angular and frequency spectra of the scattered signal are obtained and their dependence on the shape of the scattering surface, on the reradiation pattern of turbulent inhomogeneities, and on the variance of their travel velocity is analyzed.Siberian Physical and Technical Institute, State University, Tomsk. Translated from izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedenii, Radiofizika, Vol. 38, No. 9, pp. 906–912, September, 1995.     

High-energy hadron-hadron collisions and internal hadron structure

As shown by many authors, central particle emission in pp collisions at centre-of-mass energies ? 20 GeV can be described in terms of independent cluster production. In ref. [1] this process has been related to the quark-gluon picture of nucleon structure. The present paper carries this relation further and links the leading particle spectrum of non-diffractive hadron-hadron collisions to the x distribution of quarks in the hadron. Thus, the flat leading particle spectrum, as observed in non-diffractive pp collisions, is found to be naturally related to the steeply falling x distribution of quarks in the nucleon, as deduced from the structure functions measured in deep inelastic scattering of electrons and neutrinos on nucleons. Our analysis is extended to meson-nucleon collisions and leads to a prediction of the general shape of the quark x distribution in a meson.     

Photosensitive liquid crystals with nanoparticulate internal structure

Stabilization of thermodynamic relaxation of photoinduced cis isomers of azobenzene liquid-crystal molecules is observed in nanoparticulate networks. The phenomenon permits bistability of the phase state (anisotropic and isotropic) of the material and reversible all-optical switching between those states, resulting in strong changes in the light-scattering properties of the material. Recording of complex optical structures with high spatial resolution with the aid of laser beams of different wavelengths is demonstrated.     

Magnetic lattice gas of molecules with internal structure

A model of a lattice gas is considered in which molecules interact via three kinds of forces: short-ranged intra-molecular magnetic (producing a net magnetic moment per particle), long-ranged magnetic between those moments and finally long-ranged non-magnetic. Using the molecular field approximation for both kinds of the long-ranged forces and calculating exactly the contribution from the short-ranged interactions, we construct and discuss phase diagrams for the system. We show that the location of the (multi-) critical points is quite sensitive to the strength and/or sign of the intra-molecular interaction, as well as to the form of the molecules.