Facility Update: The Center for Advanced Microstructures and Devices: A Status Report

The progress in the field of high resolution X-ray microscopy is caused in particular by the rapid developments of synchrotron radiation sources and X-ray optical elements, by the extension of the energy range, improved designs of X-ray microscopes and scanning X-ray microscopes, the use of CCD detectors with high detective quantum efficiency, the introduction of new imaging techniques, and the development of new fields of application.     

Beam-induced effects in soft X-ray photoelectron emission microscopy experiments

The beam-induced effects, a consequence of the high photon flux density used in soft X-ray photoelectron emission microscopes in operation at the 3rd generation synchrotron sources, are discussed and illustrated using some representative results obtained with the microscopes at the laboratory Elettra. The focus is on the photon-induced charge potential and chemical degradation, which might be a severe problem for photon-sensible specimens. The possible steps to avoid, reduce or even make use of the beam-induced effects are outlined.     

同步辐射讲座 第三讲 软X射线显微术

对生物样品的研究，软X射线显微术具有独特的优势，例如，它能够对较厚的活性含水的生物样品直接进行显微成像以及元素分布的微区分析等，文章简要论述了软X射线显微术的衬度机制及其优势；列表概括了包括SCXM，TXM，STXM，Gabor全息以及衍射等几种类型的X射线显微术的基本特性；简要综述了合肥国家同步辐射实验室（NSRL）软X射线显微术的研究进展。     

High-resolution X-ray imaging—a powerful nondestructive technique for applications in semiconductor industry

The availability of high-brilliance X-ray sources, high-precision X-ray focusing optics and very efficient CCD area detectors has contributed essentially to the development of transmission X-ray microscopy (TXM) and X-ray computed tomography (XCT) with sub-50 nm resolution. Particularly, the fabrication of high aspect ratio Fresnel zone plates with zone widths approaching 15 nm has contributed to the enormous improvement in spatial resolution during the previous years. Currently, Fresnel zone plates give the ability to reach spatial resolutions of 15 to 20 nm in the soft and of about 30 to 50 nm in the hard X-ray energy range. X-ray microscopes with rotating anode X-ray sources that can be installed in an analytical lab next to a semiconductor fab have been developed recently. These unique TXM/XCT systems provide an important new capability of nondestructive 3D imaging of internal circuit structures without destructive sample preparation such as cross sectioning. These lab systems can be used for failure localization in micro- and nanoelectronic structures and devices, e.g., to visualize voids and residuals in on-chip metal interconnects without physical modification of the chip. Synchrotron radiation experiments have been used to study new processes and materials that have to be introduced into the semiconductor industry. The potential of TXM using synchrotron radiation in the soft X-ray energy range is shown for the nondestructive in situ imaging of void evolution in embedded on-chip copper interconnect structures during electromigration and for the imaging of different types of insulating thin films between the on-chip interconnects (spectromicroscopy).     

Exploring nanomagnetism with soft X-ray microscopy

Magnetic soft X-ray microscopy images magnetism in nanoscale systems with a spatial resolution down to 15 nm provided by state-of-the-art Fresnel zone plate optics. X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (X-MCD) is used as the element-specific magnetic contrast mechanism similar to photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM), however, with volume sensitivity and the ability to record the images in varying applied magnetic fields which allows study of magnetization reversal processes at fundamental length scales. Utilizing a stroboscopic pump-probe scheme one can investigate fast spin dynamics with a time resolution down to 70 ps which gives access to precessional and relaxation phenomena as well as spin torque driven domain wall dynamics in nanoscale systems. Current developments in zone plate optics aim for a spatial resolution towards 10 nm and at next generation X-ray sources a time resolution in the fs regime can be envisioned.     

Analytical Designing of Two-Aspherical-Mirror Anastigmats Permitting Practical Misalignments in a Soft-X-Ray Optics

A new analytical method of designing two-aspherical-mirror anastigmats was developed and applied to searching solution groups of soft X-ray microscopes of a large misalignment tolerance. The two-mirror anastigmat configurations were expressed by a practical variable related to pupil obstruction limiting the system throughput. Axial coma and other aberrations caused by a slight decenter of the system were then formulated to represent sensitivity to misalignment. These formulations enabled a global survey of solution groups as demonstrated by a designing example of soft X-ray microscopes with a magnification m = −1/50, which resulted in four solutions more insensitive to misalignment than a standard Schwarzschild optics in the soft X-ray region. Some solutions were also found to have much larger fields of view suitable for high resolution imaging as confirmed by computer ray tracing.     

同步辐射软X射线接触显微成像

软Ｘ射线显微术适合于自然状态下生物样品的高分辨率显微成像。软Ｘ射线接触显微术是Ｘ射线显微成像方法中最简单也是迄今唯一到接近理论分辨的方法。本文阐述软Ｘ射线接触显微成像的原理和方法，并报告用合理肥步辐射光源进行软Ｘ射线接触显微成像的一些实验结果。     

Antimatter,by F. Close

While high resolution electron microscopy has been in use for many years, with steadily improving image resolution, most modern microscopes can provide complementary information on the chemical composition of very small volumes of material. This advance is very important and enormously extends the range of practical applications for the electron microscope. This review describes the basic principles and techniques of high resolution imaging and analysis, in both the conventional and scanning electron microscope, noting in each case the resolution that may be achieved.     

Imaging of nanostructures with sub-100?nm spatial resolution using a desktop EUV microscope

Laser-produced plasma sources of short-wavelength radiation offer an interesting alternative to synchrotron and free-electron laser installations. Recently, we reported on a newly developed desktop EUV microscope based on plasma generated from a gas-puff target and diffractive optics. The half-pitch resolution of the microscope approached 50?nm. Compared to analogous microscopes based on synchrotron sources, our system is compact and cost-effective. In this paper, we present the results of imaging experiments on a thin polycrystalline object that was carried out in order to further examine the applicability of the microscope. We have demonstrated here that EUV microscopy can provide structural information that cannot be accessed by conventional optical microscopy or SEM.     

Design study of hard X-ray tomography system to obtain a spatial resolution of 100 nm

An optic-based X-ray tomography system of a high spatial resolution using a conventional X-ray tube was proposed. The system had several X-ray optics: multilayer mirror for monochromatic X-ray, capillary optic for focusing X-ray onto a sample, and objective zone plate. The X-ray tomography system was designed for obtaining a spatial resolution of 100 nm. Design parameters for each optic were determined and optimized by ray tracing in considering X-ray intensity and reflectivity. The X-ray tomography system with a spatial resolution of 100 nm will provide a good inspect tool in bio-medical field and semiconductor applications.     

高分辨率X射线显微成像及其进展

介绍了高分辨率X射线显微成像产生背景和发展过程,着重分析了基于光学元件波带片的放大成像的基本原理,并简述了高分辨率三维成像的有关理论。同时给出国内外高分辨率X射线显微成像研究的最新进展,展望了高分辨率X射线显微成像的应用前景。     

高分辨率X射线显微成像及其进展

介绍了高分辨率X射线显微成像产生背景和发展过程，着重分析了基于光学元件波带片的放大成像的基本原理，并简述了高分辨率三维成像的有关理论。同时给出国内外高分辨率X射线显微成像研究的最新进展，展望了高分辨率X射线显微成像的应用前景。     

A High Resolution,Hard X-ray Bio-imaging Facility at SSRL

The old saying that seeing is believing has particular resonance for studying biological cells and tissues. Since 1677, when Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple light microscope to discover single cell organisms, scientists have relied on structural information obtained from microscopes with improving capabilities to advance the understanding of how biological systems work. Optical and electron microscopes are essential for many of these important discoveries and have been widely employed in biomedical research laboratories. However, various limitations exist in these microscopy techniques. We describe below how the new X-ray imaging facility at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL), based on an Xradia nano-XCT full-field transmission X-ray microscope (TXM), can provide complementary and unique capabilities to the current microscopy methods for studying complex biological systems.     

Multiple-objective microscopy with three-dimensional resolution near 100 nm and a long working distance

The resolution of microscopes is limited by the sizes of their point-spread functions. The invention of confocal, theta, and 4Pi microscopes has permitted the classic Abbe limit to be exceeded. We propose the use of a combination of 4Pi and theta microscopy to decrease resolution by using four illumination objectives and two detection objectives. Using middle numerical aperture, long-working-distance objectives yielded a resolution near 100 nm in the three dimensions, which opens the possibility of exploring large volumes with a high resolution.     

Some practical considerations about the effects of radiation damage on hydrated cells imaged by X-ray fluorescence microscopy

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) microscopy features unique capabilities which make it well suited for biological investigations. Its high sensitivity together with high spatial resolution and penetration depth provide a unique tool for trace elements analysis in heterogeneous samples. Like most of the X-ray based techniques, radiation damage sets hard limits on the ultimate performance. Although the interactions between matter and photons are well described from a physics point-of-view, there is a lack of experimental data, in particular for XRF imaging mode. In this context, this work proposes a practical approach in addressing the limits set by radiation damage to X-ray fluorescence imaging in the case of hydrated and unfixed cells at room temperature. We find that the maximum dose tolerated by ascidian blood cells is 10⁵ Gy. A simple theoretical model allowed the minimal doses required for a good image contrast to be determined for various experimental schemes. The results are consistent with the experimental observation on ascidian blood cells which exemplifies the peculiar case of highly concentrated samples (>10,000 ppm) at room temperature. The same simple model predicts that in the case of the detection of high Z trace elements in cryo-preserved cells, the relative detection limit set by radiation damage is below 0.1 ppm at a spatial resolution of 100 nm.     

优化X射线同轴相位衬度成像的理论研究

采用同轴相位衬度成像方法,基于PGW理论获得的频域相位衬度传递函数,对于理想光源和多色X射线源,用计算机模拟分析了如何选择物像距离和空间频率以获取最佳相位衬度像。实际应用中要综合考虑具体成像实验装置对于物像距离的可调范围以及成像分辨率的要求。对于具有一定谱宽的X射线源,应选择谱宽尽量小的源,以获得含信息量丰富、分辨率高的图像。     

Technical Report: Ex- and In-Situ Metrology with Shack-Hartmann Wavefrot Sensors

Recent evolution of X-ray sources has opened a large field of research and applications in this spectral range. As in the visible range, one can distinguish two main centers of interest: high resolution X-ray imaging on the one hand, and improvement of the spatial quality of collimated X-ray beams on the other hand. Applications are, for example, EUV photolithography, X-ray microscopy, tomography, phase contrast imaging or material probing.     

线焦斑X射线源成像

为解决普通X射线源光通量和空间相干性的矛盾,本文提出一种焦斑为线状的新型X射线源.理论上,本文所提的射线焦斑为理想的线,沿线方向上提供高通量光子;垂直线方向光源为空间相干光,可为系统提供高分辨率图像.沿着线方向上,图像会损失细节,为补偿该方向上图像的损失,利用旋转叠加的方法,重构出高分辨率图像.在频率域,分析了旋转叠加空间频率传递函数值的分布特性,其结果表明:相对单个图像,频率传递函数在频域的各个方向,传递函数特性有大幅度提高,从而可以传递图像高空间频率成分.基于普通X射线管,实现了该种射线源,并利用实验验证了该方法的有效性.     

激光高能X射线成像中探测器表征与电子影响研究

基于激光尾场加速电子的高能X射线源具有高光子能量与小源尺寸的特点,在高空间分辨无损检测方面发挥着十分重要的作用.在X光机上测量了CsI针状闪烁屏、锗酸铋(BGO)闪烁阵列与DRZ闪烁屏的本征空间分辨率,并模拟了三类探测器对高能X射线的能量沉积响应,其中CsI针状闪烁屏的空间分辨率高达8.7 lp/mm.采用Ta转换靶产生的高能X射线开展透视照相,能够分辨最高面密度33.0 g/cm~2的两层客体结构.开展了X射线照相、X射线与电子混合照相以及电子照相三种情况的比对实验,在X射线产额不足或探测效率不够情况下采用X射线与电子混合透视照相的方案,以牺牲对比度为代价,能较大程度地提高图像信号强度.     

X光分幅相机-平面镜配接方法研究

利用X光谱仪用平面镜备件以及实验室常用五维调节架,设计了X光平面镜与X光分幅相机配接的探索方案,并对系统调节中各元件调节误差带来的影响进行了一定的分析,详细描述了系统的瞄准调节方法和过程.利用激光打靶实验,对X光平面镜与X光分幅相机的配接方法进行了检验.实验过程和结果表明,该方法系统结构和实施都较为简单,可以比较容易地在分幅相机微带上获得经平面镜反射的靶目标针孔像,实现～50 ps的时间分辨、10～20 μm的空间分辨及几十倍的能量分辨.