Two-axis-scanning laser Doppler vibrometer for precision engineering

Laser Doppler vibrometer (LVD) has been the most favorite instrument for precision dynamics measurement due to its non-contact, high accuracy and high resolution. However, LDV can only give the dynamic data of a particular location on the entire feature. In order to get the whole field data, a laser beam-scanning mechanism has to be implemented. Currently, motor-driven scanning mirror is used to move the measurement probe from one point to another. The mechanical vibrations of the scanning mirror will reduce the measurement accuracy. This paper introduces a novel scanning LDV optical system embodied in an acousto-optic deflector scanning mechanism. It can improve the measurement accuracy since there is no mechanical motion involved. One main advantage of this system is that it generates a laser scanning beam in parallel that is different from the beam scanning in the conventional scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (SLDV). The new system has a board scanning range. The measurement target size ranges from few tens of millimeters down to 10 μm. We have demonstrated the capability of the novel system on scanning measurements of features as big as ultra-precision cutting tool to features as tiny as AFM cantilever. We believe that the novel SLDV will find profound potential applications in the precision engineering field.     

Reducing measurement time for a laser Doppler vibrometer using regressive techniques

In the last decade the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) has become a widely spread instrument for measuring vibrations. It often offers accurate measurements with a high spatial resolution. However, the measurement time of the LDV and especially for the scanning LDV is long. Therefore, reducing the measurement time is an attractive objective. A way to achieve this is to use a single sine excitation (on a resonance frequency). However, this technique has two major drawbacks: the inability to provide information on the damping and a operational deflection shape that can differ from the true mode shape. In this article two methods will be introduced to reduce measurement time without these defaults. In the first method introduced in this article a narrow band multisine is used as excitation signal and the measured vibration signal in the time domain is represented by a model using sines and cosines with these fixed narrow band frequencies. The coefficients of those sines and cosines are then estimated on a global scale by means of a least-squares estimator. An important advantage of this particular technique is that one does not have to measure a full period of the signal, reducing time. The second method accelerates the measurement time for scanning LDV measurements. Using the time domain sequence from each previous scan point and a limited number of time samples from the current scan point, the full time domain sequence of the current scan point can be estimated. Both these methods are a key benefit for in-line quality control, which can have upwards of 1000 spatial measurement locations. The proposed techniques will be validated on both simulations and experiments of varying complexity.     

3D model assisted fully automated scanning laser Doppler vibrometer measurements

In this paper, a new fully automated scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) measurement technique is presented. In contrast to existing scanning LDV techniques which use a 2D camera for the manual selection of sample points, we use a 3D Time-of-Flight camera in combination with a CAD file of the test object to automatically obtain measurements at pre-defined locations. The proposed procedure allows users to test prototypes in a shorter time because physical measurement locations are determined without user interaction. Another benefit from this methodology is that it incorporates automatic mapping between a CAD model and the vibration measurements. This mapping can be used to visualize measurements directly on a 3D CAD model. The proposed method is illustrated with vibration measurements of an unmanned aerial vehicle     

Processing optical measurements using a regressive Fourier series: A review

In this article a generalized regressive Fourier series approach is shown which does not suffer from the so-called leakage effects prone to frequency domain approaches. This parametric approach will be used to tackle a number of optical techniques. Due to the fact that the technique offers an approximation and not an estimate of the data, it is possible to reduce the spatial data of operational mobility shapes measured by e.g. a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). It also allows a reduction of measurement time of this former technique. The LDV will also be used to visualize and localize acoustic sources.     

Acoustic source identification using a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer

This paper shows how a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV), an instrument designed to measure vibrations of structures or objects, can be used in a non-traditional fashion to identify acoustical sources. This is achieved by measuring the changes in the optical path induced by local fluctuation of the air refraction index to which the LDV is sensitive. The acoustical signal used is sinusoidal and may be recovered by scanning at a uniform rate over a subject area (continuous scan) parallel to the source axis and demodulating this signal. Due to the fact that the measured scan area is in fact a line integral over a measurement volume between the laser head and a rigid object needed to reflect the laser beam, multiple view planes around the axis of the acoustic source are usually measured. These are then passed through a tomographic algorithm, thereby reconstructing the full sound field. In this article however, only one view plane is measured, but the acoustic source is placed on a rotating surface with fixed rotational frequency, thereby imposing a modulation on the measured spectrum. Demodulation will allow reconstruction of the three-dimensional sound field.     

Multipoint laser Doppler vibrometry using holographic optical elements and a CMOS digital camera

A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is described in which holographic optical elements are used to provide the interferometer reference and object illumination beams. A complementary metal-oxide semiconductor camera, incorporating a digital signal processor, is used to carry out real-time signal processing of the interferometer output to allow multipoint LDV to be implemented.     

Measurement of the resonance frequency of single bubbles using a laser Doppler vibrometer

The behavior of bubbles confined in tubes and channels is important in medical and industrial applications. In these small spaces, traditional means of experimentally observing bubble dynamics are often impossible or significantly perturb the system. A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) requires a narrow (<1 mm diameter) line-of-sight access for the beam and illumination of the bubble does not perturb its dynamics. LDV measurements of the resonance frequency of a bubble suspended in a small tank are presented to illustrate the utility of this measurement technique. The precision of the technique is similar to the precision of traditional acoustic techniques.     

Medium characterization from interface-wave impedance and ellipticity using simultaneous displacement and pressure measurements

The interface-wave impedance and ellipticity are wave attributes that interrelate the full waveforms as observed in different components. For each of the fluid/elastic-solid interface waves, i.e., the pseudo-Rayleigh (pR) and Stoneley (St) waves, the impedance and ellipticity are found to have different functional dependencies on Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. By combining the attributes in a cost function, unique and stable estimates of these parameters can be obtained, particularly when using the St wave. In a validation experiment, the impedance of the laser-excited pR wave is successfully extracted from simultaneous measurements of the normal particle displacement and the fluid pressure at a water/aluminum interface. The displacement is measured using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) and the pressure with a needle hydrophone. Any LDV measurement is perturbed by refractive-index changes along the LDV beam once acoustic waves interfere with the beam. Using a model that accounts for these perturbations, an impedance decrease of 28% with respect to the plane wave impedance of the pR wave is predicted for the water/aluminum configuration. Although this deviation is different for the experimentally extracted impedance, there is excellent agreement between the observed and predicted pR waveforms in both the particle displacement and fluid pressure.     

Detection of laser induced dielectric breakdown in water using a laser doppler vibrometer

This study is focused on exploring the feasibility of an all-optic surface scanning method in determining the size and position of a submerged, laser generated, optoacoustic (OA) source. The optoacoustic effect in this case was generated when the absorption of a short electromagnetic pulse in matter caused a dielectric breakdown, a plasma emission flash and a subsequent acoustic wave. In the experiment, a laser pulse with λ = 1064 nm and 12 ns pulse length was aimed at a volume of deionized water. When the laser beam was focused by a f = 16 mm lens, a single dielectric breakdown spot occurred. When a f = 40 mm was used several breakdowns in a row were induced. The breakdowns were photographed using a double shutter camera. The acoustic wave generated by the dielectric breakdowns were detected at a point on the water surface using a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV). First, the LDV signal was used to calculate the speed of sound with an accuracy of 10 m/s. Secondly, the location and length of the dielectric breakdown was calculated with an accuracy of 1 mm. The calculated position matched the breakdown location recorded by a camera. The results show that it is possible to use LDV surface measurements from a single spot to determine both the position and length of the OA source as well as the speed of sound in the medium. Furthermore, the LDV measurements also show a secondary peak that originates from the OA source. To unravel the origin and properties of this interesting feature, further investigations are necessary     

Experimental measurements on transverse vibration characteristics of piezoceramic rectangular plates by optical methods

This study provides two non-contact optical techniques to investigate the transverse vibration characteristics of piezoceramic rectangular plates in resonance. These methods, including the amplitude-fluctuation electronic speckle pattern interferometry (AF-ESPI) and laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV), are full-field measurement for AF-ESPI and point-wise displacement measurement for LDV, respectively. The edges of these piezoceramic rectangular plates may either be fixed or free. Both resonant frequencies and mode shapes of vibrating piezoceramic plates can be obtained simultaneously by AF-ESPI. Excellent quality of the interferometric fringe patterns for the mode shapes is obtained. In the LDV system, a built-in dynamic signal analyzer (DSA) composed of DSA software and a plug-in waveform generator board can provide the piezoceramic plates with the swept-sine excitation signal, whose gain at corresponding frequencies is analyzed by the DSA software. The peaks appeared in the frequency response curve are resonant frequencies. In addition to these optical methods, the numerical computation based on the finite element analysis is used to verify the experimental results. Good agreements of the mode shapes and resonant frequencies are obtained for experimental and numerical results.     

激光多普勒测量中信号的误差分析

激光多普勒测量技术在流体以及固体表面测量中得到了广泛的运用。由于影响测量的误差源较多 ,因而在实际的测量过程中 ,激光多普勒测量的精度并不是非常的高。影响测量精度的误差主要是激光多普勒频率增宽 ,高斯光束的干涉以及安装误差。通过控制不同的系统参数 ,可以消除或减小相应的误差     

All-fiber pulsed laser Doppler vibrometer development based on time-domain chopping techniques

A 1550 nm all-fiber pulsed laser Doppler vibrometer(LDV) based on time-domain chopping techniques is developed to overcome demodulation failures caused by multipath interference. The system adopts an adjustable configuration on pulse duration and pulse repetition frequency according to the distance. An experiment is carried out at a 25 m standoff with pulse duration of 80 ns, single pulse energy of 0.4 nJ, and pulse repetition frequency of 1 MHz. A waveform and spectrogram of the demodulated voice show that the pulsed LDV system has a good performance in long-range voice listening.     

Laser Doppler vibrometry based on self-mixing effect

In this paper, a simple, compact and low cost laser Doppler vibrometer is presented. It is simply composed of a laser diode (9 mm in diameter, 2 g of weight, emitting at 825 nm) and by a two-lens optical system designed to focus the laser radiation on the vibrating target. This sensor can measure target velocity. The working principle is based on the self-mixing effect that occurs in a semiconductor laser diode when the emitted radiation is back reflected toward the cavity and then re-introduced inside. The target velocity is calculated measuring the frequency of the peak of the spectrum of the signal generated by a photodiode mounted on the back facet of the laser diode. In this article, the design and the realisation of the vibrometer is reported. The self-mixing vibrometer has been calibrated in the range 0–300 mm/s, using a rotating disk covered with white paper. The effect of the angle of measurement and target distance are reported. Finally, the sensor has been compared with a commercial laser Doppler vibrometer using a vibrating surface as a target.     

Detecting damage in vibrating structures with a scanning LDV

It has been demonstrated, through experiments on laboratory-scale structures, that structural defects such as cracks can be detected and located using a continuously scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) if vibration sufficient to flex the defect can be induced and if the defects are such as to produce localised mode shape discontinuities. This paper describes such a method of defect detection using a short linear scan at the crack location. Through-cracks are easily detected in thin metal plates whereas narrow slots in a solid cantilever beam have no easily identifiable effect unless they extend more than half-way through the thickness. Cracks in a reinforced-concrete beam introduced marked and identifiable discontinuities in mode shapes. Speckle noise affects the measurements, sometimes seriously. A simple low-pass filter may improve the signal quality.     

Assessment of acoustic pressure holograms from membrane velocity measurements

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate experimentally the possibility of acquiring acoustic pressure holograms using a light membrane and a scanning laser vibrometer. The velocity of a light membrane placed in an acoustic field can be measured without contact by means of a laser vibrometer. The ideal membrane must be optically reflective, acoustically transparent (having as little mass as possible), impermeable, and mounted without tension. The measured velocity is equal for continuity reasons to the normal acoustic velocity, but differs from the acoustic velocity without the membrane because the membrane is never completely transparent to acoustic waves. The effect of the mass of the membrane can be taken into account to correct this difference. Then, acoustic pressure holograms can be deduced from velocity holograms using the 2D Discrete Fourier Transform. An experimental validation is carried out; acoustic pressures derived from laser measurements are compared with microphone measurements, with a very satisfying match over a wide frequency range.     

The study of laser self-mixing vibrometer employing different feedback regime using a VCSELS

Laser interferometry based on self-mixing effect widely used to measure displacement, velocity, vibration and distance due to compactness, non-contact, as well as low cost. An important use of the self-mixing effect inside a laser diode is in optical self-mixing vibrometer. We have experimentally investigated self-mixing interference produced by the feedback of light from a vibrated target into a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser for sensing applications. In this paper, the self-mixing vibrometer employing different feedback regime is discussed and a theoretical analysis is also proposed. Numerical analysis focused on the distortion self-mixing waveform. Numerical analysis and experimental results show that mode-hop occurs when the laser self-mixing vibrometer employing at high feedback level.     

Guided waves in anisotropic and quasi-isotropic aerospace composites: Three-dimensional simulation and experiment

Three-dimensional (3D) elastic wave simulations can be used to investigate and optimize nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and structural health monitoring (SHM) ultrasonic damage detection techniques for aerospace materials. 3D anisotropic elastodynamic finite integration technique (EFIT) has been implemented for ultrasonic waves in carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite laminates. This paper describes 3D EFIT simulations of guided wave propagation in undamaged and damaged anisotropic and quasi-isotropic composite plates. Comparisons are made between simulations of guided waves in undamaged anisotropic composite plates and both experimental laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) wavefield data and dispersion curves. Time domain and wavenumber domain comparisons are described. Wave interaction with complex geometry delamination damage is then simulated to investigate how simulation tools incorporating realistic damage geometries can aid in the understanding of wave interaction with CFRP damage. In order to move beyond simplistic assumptions of damage geometry, volumetric delamination data acquired via X-ray microfocus computed tomography is directly incorporated into the simulation. Simulated guided wave interaction with the complex geometry delamination is compared to experimental LDV time domain data and 3D wave interaction with the volumetric damage is discussed.     

Laser-Doppler Vibrometer measurements of acoustic-to-seismic coupling in unconsolidated soils

Measurements of acoustic-to-seismic coupling ratio, i.e. the ratio of the pressure exerted by an acoustic wave at a point on the surface to the acoustic particle velocity generated at the surface at that point, may be used to determine both elastic and structural properties of poroelastic materials. The sound pressure is measured using a microphone and, usually, the velocities are measured using geophones. Problems with geophone sensors have been shown to include both mass loading of the soil and coupling resonances within the frequency range of interest. The latter can lead to inaccurate amplitude and phase measurements. In an attempt to overcome these problems, the use of a Laser-Doppler vibrometer (LDV) has been investigated. Previous work with compacted plane soil surfaces has been extended to loosely consolidated soils. Good agreement has been found between geophone and LDV measurements of vertical particle velocity for a continuous wave sound source. Problems with poor LDV signal-to-noise ratio in unconsolidated materials have been overcome using local ground treatment. Subsequent modelling shows reasonable agreement between the data and the predicted values of material properties.     

油中悬浮粒子激光多普勒测速瞬时速度的分析

二维频移激光多普勒测量油中悬浮粒子速度时,根据悬浮粒子通过针孔光阑时存在的四种不同情况,对原有激光多普勒测量悬浮粒子瞬时速度的方法进行了改进,提出一种悬浮粒子瞬时速度分析处理方法,利用该方法,对水平方管内的油中悬浮粒子的瞬时速度进行了测量分析。结果表明:改进方法获取的悬浮粒子瞬时速度的稳定性较好,能够表征在一组粒子通过激光多普勒的针孔光阑的时间段内粒子组随着时间的变化趋势,提高了频移激光多普勒采样数据的利用效率,有利于进一步准确表征悬浮粒子在油液中二维瞬时速度的分布特征和运动轨迹,为激光多普勒实验测量中悬浮粒子瞬时速度的表征提供理论支撑。     

Three dimensional evaluation of aluminum plates with wall-thinning by full-field pulse-echo laser ultrasound

We propose a full-field pulse-echo laser ultrasonic wave propagation imager (FF-PE-UPI) for the evaluation of structural defects. The FF-PE-UPI consists of a Q-switched laser for the generation of thermoelastic waves, a laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) for sensing, and a two-axis translation stage for raster scanning of the combined generation and sensing laser beams. A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan data representations are used for the evaluation of structural defects. Three specimens were tested: a 4-mm aluminum plate with an area of 50% thickness reduction, a 6-mm aluminum plate with an area of 25% thickness reduction, and an 8-mm aluminum plate with engraved letters. The damages on the tested specimens were successfully visualized.