Photoelectrically detected magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the excited triplet states of point defects in silicon

Highly sensitive methods for the detection of the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra based on the spin-dependent microwave photoconductivity were applied to investigate the structural defects in irradiated silicon. The parameters of the EPR spectra of the excited triplet states of radiation defects were determined and several models of the carbon related defects were supposed. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 41, 774–777 (May 1999) Published in English in the original Russian journal. Reproduced here with stylistic changes by the Translation Editor.     

Transition and rare-earth elements in the SiC and GaN wide-gap semiconductors: Recent EPR studies

EPR studies of transition-element ions in SiC and GaN and of erbium in 6H-SiC are reported. Data are presented on Sc²⁺ ions and scandium acceptors, and chromium and molybdenum ions in various charge states in SiC. A study was made of nickel and manganese in nominally pure GaN grown by the sandwich sublimation method. The first EPR investigation of Er in 6H-SiC is reported. Erbium was identified from the hfs of the EPR spectra. Various possible models of erbium centers in silicon carbides are discussed. Strong room-temperature erbium-ion luminescence was observed. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 41, 865–867 (May 1999)     

Li-defect interactions in electron-irradiated n-type silicon by EPR measurements

Single crystal silicon, both with and without oxygen, has been diffused with lithium to concentrations ～10¹⁷/cm², irradiated with 1 to 1.5 MeV electrons, and the ensuing defects studies by EPR measurements. The presence of oxygen strongly affects the properties of these defects. Measurements have indicated the presence of two new defects which involve Li-one in O-containing material and one in O-free material. The defects are observed in their electron-filled state, and indicate a net electron spinof ½. The defect spectra disappear (with time) at room temperature, and can be explained by the formation of other Li-involved defects which lie deeper in the energy bandgap and are not visible by EPR. Electron irradiation at 40 °K followed by annealing at higher temperatures show that both EPR defects described above begin to form at about 200 °K and begin to decrease at about 275 °K-just as does the 250 °K reverse annealing observed generally for n-type Si. Based on these data, and the work of others, it is suggested that both defects form as a result of the motion of Si interstitials which produce a (Li-O-interstitial) complex in O-containing Si, and a (Li-interstitial) complex in O-free Si.     

Electron paramagnetic resonance of defects with metastable properties in crystalline GaN

An EPR study of GaN revealed the presence of defects exhibiting metastable properties. EPR spectra of two centers (ii1a and ii1b) with axial symmetry along the hexagonal axis of the crystal, which have strongly anisotropic g factors, were observed. The anisotropy of the spectra decreases, and the line shape changes, with increasing temperature. The spectra of the ii1a and ii1b centers disappear at 25 and 50 K, respectively. Subsequent cooling of the samples does not restore the EPR signals, which implies that one observes here phenomena inherent in defects with metastable states. To restore EPR signals, one has to warm the samples to room temperature under very specific conditions. The possible microstructure of the discovered defects is discussed. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 40, 1818–1823 (October 1998)     

Electron paramagnetic resonance of scandium in silicon carbide

The EPR spectra of scandium acceptors and Sc²⁺(3d) ions are observed in 6H-SiC crystals containing a scandium impurity. The EPR spectra of scandium acceptors are characterized by comparatively small hyperfine interaction constants, whose values are consistent with the constants for other group III elements in SiC: boron, aluminum, and gallium acceptors. The EPR spectra of scandium acceptors undergo major changes in the temperature interval 20–30 K. In the low-temperature phase the EPR spectra are characterized by orthorhombic symmetry, whereas the high-temperature phase has higher axial symmetry. The EPR spectra observed at temperatures above 35 K and ascribed by the authors to Sc²⁺(3d) ions, or to the A ²⁻ state of scandium, have significantly larger hyperfine structure constants and narrower lines in comparison with the EPR spectra of scandium acceptors. The parameters of these EPR spectra are close to those of Sc²⁺(3d) in ionic crystals and ZnS, whereas the parameters of the EPR spectra of scandium acceptors correspond more closely to the parameters of holes localized at group III atoms, in particular, at scandium atoms in GeO₂. It is concluded that in all centers the scandium atoms occupy silicon sites. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 39, 52–57 (January 1997)     

EPR of neutral vacancy-helium centers in silicon

In this letter we report the first observation by EPR of helium-associated defects in solid. Two new (S = 1) EPR spectra, labeled Si-AA5 and Si-AA6, arise from the association of helium and intrinsic defects in crystalline silicon. Both are produced by helium ion implantation at room temperature and are stable to 180°C. By implanting ³He isotope, the Si-AA6 ³He hyperfine spectrum has been observed. Both centers are tentatively identified as vacancy-helium centers in neutral charge states.     

Model of the pair phosphorus atom-interstitial silicon atom

Interstitial defects in silicon implanted with P and Si ions are investigated by x-ray diffraction. It is established that the interstitial complexes formed by implantation and in subsequent heat treatment do not contain a P atom. A model is proposed for the pair PI: P atom-institial Si atom. The pair PI consists of P and Si atoms at the same interstice which are not bound to one another by a covalent bond. The pair model accounts for the characteristic features of the diffusion of implanted phosphorus in silicon. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 40, 1995–1998 (November 1998)     

Mechanisms of EPR line broadening in Pb5Ge3O11 near a structural transition

The polar angular dependence of the anomalous linewidth of three EPR transitions in the Gd³⁺ trigonal center has been used to determine the broadening mechanism. It is shown that the dominant mechanism of Gd³⁺ EPR signal broadening in the vicinity of the ferroelectric transition is the critically growing spread of the b ₂₁ and c ₂₁ parameters accounting for the odd-order fields of remote charge-compensating defects. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 40, 321–326 (February 1998)     

Anisotropy of phosphorous electron donor state in strained clusters in silicon at low temperatures

An anisotropic EPR spectrum at T = 4 K was observed in silicon samples irradiated by phosphorus ions and subsequently annealed at 1000°C. Epitaxial silicon layers with a natural isotope composition and enriched by ²⁸Si isotope grown on a natural silicon wafer were investigated. The spectrum consisted of three lines corresponding to different g-factor components: g _x ,g _y , and g _z . The central line was overlapped by the isotropic line coinciding by its g-factor with the line of the conduction electrons in silicon. The shape of the spectral lines indicated that the spectrum was due to the paramagnetic centers which belong to the randomly oriented clusters with the anisotropic g-factor. The nature of the anisotropic EPR spectrum is due to the electrons localized on donors located in the strained phosphorous clusters. The strains were caused by either incompletely annealed defects after the phosphorous implantation (E = 40 keV, D = 2 × 10¹⁴ cm⁻², T _ann = 1000°C, 1 h) or phosphorous atoms in clusters. The distance between the components strongly depended on the temperature and microwave power and decreased as they increased.     

Electron and nuclear spin dynamics in plastically deformed silicon crystals enriched in isotope 29Si

Paramagnetic defects of a new type with a concentration of about 10¹⁵ cm^?3 are shown to be generated during the plastic deformation of isotope-rich (72%, 76% ²⁹Si) silicon crystals at a temperature of 950°C. The electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of these defects are anisotropic and have a significant width (up to 1 kOe). The nonuniform broadening of the EPR lines is caused by the variation of the internal magnetic field in correlated defect clusters. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of the deformed crystals consist of Pake doublets split by nuclear spin-spin interaction. The broadening of the NMR spectra is caused by nuclear dipole-dipole relaxation.     

Characteristics of the formation of radiation defects in silicon structures

The method of deep-level transient spectroscopy is used to investigate aspects of the formation of radiation defects in silicon p ⁺-n diffusion structures when bombarded by accelerated electrons. It is shown that for base thicknesses of the p ⁺-n structures in the range 0.2–0.6mm a substantial change in the concentration of the radiation defects formed in this way is observed, having a maximum at 0.25 mm. Below 0.2 mm and above 0.6 mm the concentration of radiation defects exhibits a weak dependence on base thickness. The observed effect is explained by variation of the relative concentrations of vacancies and interstitial silicon atoms in the base during formation of p ⁺-n pairs. Zh. Tekh. Fiz. 69, 121–123 (January 1999)     

EPR investigation of a-Si:H aerosol particles formed under silane thermal decomposition

The dangling bond defects were investigated in a-Si:H particles formed under silane thermal decomposition in flow reactor. EPR together with hydrogen evolution method were used. The experimental results allowed us to conclude that there are two kinds of dangling bond defects in a-Si:H aerosol particles. The defects of the first kind are localized on the surface of interconnected microvoids and microchannels (surface dangling bonds) and those of the second kind are embedded in amorphous silicon network (volume dangling bonds). The thermal equilibration of dangling bonds and temperature dependence of equilibrium dangling bond concentration were investigated. It was found that at temperatures > 400 K the dangling bond concentrationNApplied Magnetic Resonance _s reversibly depends on sample temperature. The volume dangling bond concentration increases with temperature increasing (the effective activation energy of dangling bond formationU > 0), and the surface dangling bond concentration decreases with temperature increasing (U < 0). It has been found that EPR line is considerably asymmetric for samples with high hydrogen content and for low hydrogen content the EPR line is weakly asymmetric. A conclusion was drawn that the asymmetry degree depends on amorphous silicon lattice distortions. This conclusion has been confirmed by EPR spectra simulations.     

Influence of irradiation on the thermal decomposition of lithium perchlorate

Abstract

Infrared absorption measurements were made before and after 90 °K electron irradiations of silicon samples which contained either dispersed oxygen, carbon, or carbon plus oxygen. Irradiation-produced absorption bands associated with two distinctly different defects are observed depending on the oxygen and carbon content of the silicon. One center is the well-known vacancy-oxygen A-center defect (836-cm^?1 band) and is formed on irradiation in oxygen-containing silicon with a magnitude which is independent of the carbon content. Measurements have correlated the formation of one A-center with the loss of one interstitial oxygen atom, thereby indicating that A-center formation occurs by vacancy trapping at interstitial oxygen atoms. A second center (922-and 932-cm^?1 bands) is formed only in silicon crystals which contain both oxygen and carbon. The results indicate that this center is formed by the trapping of a silicon interstitial at a carbon-oxygen complex.     

Spatial distribution of radiation defects in tooth enamel

The spatial distribution of radiation defects in tooth enamel has been investigated using EPR imaging. Plates of enamel irradiated with γ rays and electrons with energy 1.2 and 3.8 MeV have been studied. A falloff of the radiation-defect concentration in the direction in which the radiation acts is detected in the electron-irradiated plates, with the slope of the falloff decreasing with increasing electron energy. The defect distribution was uniform in the γ-irradiated plates. It is shown that the study of tooth enamel by means of EPR imaging can be used to determine the type and energy characteristics of the ionizing radiation that acts on a living organism. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 41, 1207–1209 (July 1999)     

Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox,Bell's inequality,and the projection postulate

Our aim is to understand the role of implicit assumptions which has been used by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen (EPR) in their famous article [Phys. Rev., 47, 777 (1935)] devoted to the so-called EPR paradox. We found that the projection postulate plays a crucial role in the EPR argument. It seems that EPR made a mistake in this paper — the projection postulate was applied not in its original form (as it has been formulated in von Neumann's book [Mathematical Foundations of Quantum mechanics, Princeton University Press (1955)] but in the form which was later formalized as Lüders' postulate [Ann. Phys., Lpz. 8, 322 (1951)]. Von Neumann's postulate was crucially modified by extending it to observables with degenerate spectra. This modification is the real source of “quantum nonlocality.” The use of the original von Neumann postulate eliminates this problem — instead of (an action at a distance)-nonlocality, we obtain a classical measurement nonlocality, which is related to the synchronization of two measurements (produced on the two parts of a composite system). If one uses correctly von Neumann's projection postulate, no “elements of reality” can be assigned to entangled systems. Talk presented at the oral issue of J. Russ. Laser Res. dedicated to the memory of Professor Vladimir A. Isakov, Professor Alexander S. Shumovsky, and Professor Andrei V. Vinogradov held in Moscow February 21–22, 2008.     

Study of near surface layer of graphite produced by nitrogen ion bombardment at high doses

To study the modified surface layers of graphites and deposited films of sputtered material, the dependences of sputtering yield Y , and ion-electron emission coefficient γ on ion incidence angle and target temperature under high dose 30 keV N⁺ ₂ ion irradiation have been measured. In the angular range θ=0-80° Y and γ increase approximately as inverse cosθ, Y of POCO-AXF-5Q are 1.5 times larger than of MPG-LT. The dependences of γ (T) manifests a step-like behaviour typical for the radiation induced phase transitions. EPR analysis shows that at near room temperatures the point electron defects are typical of carbon and the defects due to carbon atoms interacting with 14 N nuclei. At elevated temperatures (≥ 300°C) there are the defects typical of graphite-like structures. The films deposited on glass collectors shows for cold targets only the defects typical of carbon, for the heated graphites - also the defects associated with C-¹⁴N nuclei interaction.     

Theoretical analysis of the impurity distribution in single-crystal silicon

Results are presented for the total energies calculated for oxygen and carbon impurities in silicon at T=0 K. The equilibrium positions of these point defects are determined at low (10⁻³–10⁻² at. %) concentrations. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 39, 1384–1385 (August 1996)     

Theoretical analysis of impurity distributions in crystalline silicon

Calculations of the total energy of oxygen and carbon impurities in silicon at T=0 K are presented. The equilibrium position of point defects is determined for low (10⁻³–10⁻² at. %) concentrations. Fiz. Tverd. Tela (St. Petersburg) 39, 2001–2002 (November 1997)     

The measurement of cone length and range in etched plastics

Abstract

Group V impurities implanted at 400 keV into silicon have been detected in substitutional lattice positions by EPR. Three samples of VFZ, p-type 1200–1500 ohm-cm silicon from the same ingot were implanted with As⁷⁵, Sb¹²¹, and Sb¹²³, respectively. The EPR spectrum of each implanted substitutional impurity was observed after annealing the lattice damage. Only the isotope implanted in each sample was seen. Since only those donors which are electrically active can be observed, this technique measures the electrically active fraction of the implanted species. Upon annealing to 970°C, most of the antimony was active whereas only about 1/5 of the arsenic was observed. Comparisons with backscattering results indicate that between 350 and 600°C, ～95 per cent of the implanted antimony is substitutional but ～0 per cent is electrically active. The increase in electrical activity at 600°C is due to the rise of the Fermi level to the donor level as the residual lattice damage anneals. The paramagnetic damage centers observed were those also seen in oxygen-implanted silicon, Si-P3 and Si-Pl, but the Si-P3 center was not as well resolved and grows upon annealing to 200°C.     

EPR and optical spectra of cupric ions doped in powder strontium maleate tetrahydrate and magnesium Bis (hydrogen maleate) hexahydrate

Abstract

EPR spectra of Cu²⁺ ions doped in a strontium maleate tetrahydrate and magnesium bis (hydrogen maleate) hexahydrate have been studied in X-band at room temperature and at liquid nitrogen temperature. Spin-Hamiltonian parameters have been calculated. Molecular orbital coefficients are obtained by correlating optical absorption data with EPR results.