Effect of current density on the microstructure and corrosion behaviour of plasma electrolytic oxidation treated AM50 magnesium alloy

Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) of an AM50 magnesium alloy was accomplished in a silicate-based electrolyte using a DC power source. Coatings were produced at three current densities, i.e. 15 mA cm⁻², 75 mA cm⁻², and 150 mA cm⁻² and were characterised for thickness, roughness, microstructural morphology, phase composition, and corrosion resistance. Even though the 15 min treated coatings produced at higher current density levels were thicker, they showed poor corrosion resistance when compared to that of the coatings obtained at 15 mA cm⁻². Short-term treatments (2 min and 5 min) at 150 mA cm⁻² yielded coatings of thickness and corrosion resistance comparable to that of the low current density coatings. The superior corrosion resistance of the low thickness coatings is attributed to the better pore morphology and compactness of the layer.     

Effect of pulse frequency on the microstructure, phase composition and corrosion performance of a phosphate-based plasma electrolytic oxidation coated AM50 magnesium alloy

An AM50 magnesium alloy was plasma electrolytic oxidation treated using a pulsed DC power supply at three different pulse frequencies viz., 10 Hz, 100 Hz and 1000 Hz with a constant pulse ratio for 15 min in an alkaline phosphate electrolyte. The resultant coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy for their phase composition and microstructural features. The 10 Hz condition yielded relatively thick and rough coatings, which was attributed to the higher energy input per individual pulse during the PEO processing. The phase composition was also found to be influenced by the processing frequency. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies performed in 0.1 M NaCl solutions revealed that the coatings produced at 10 Hz condition had a better corrosion resistance, which was attributed to the higher thickness, more compact microstructural features and a relatively stable phase composition.     

Dry sliding wear behaviour of magnesium oxide and zirconium oxide plasma electrolytic oxidation coated magnesium alloy

Two types of PEO coatings, one consisting of magnesium oxide (MgO) and the other comprising zirconium oxide (ZrO₂) as the main phase composition were produced on AM50 magnesium alloy from alkaline and acidic electrolytes, respectively. The ZrO₂ coating was found to be spongy and thicker with a higher roughness, whilst the relatively more compact MgO coating was having contrasting features. In the dry sliding oscillating wear tests under two different loads viz., 2 N and 5 N, the ZrO₂ coating exhibited a very poor wear resistance. The MgO coating showed an excellent resistance to sliding wear under 2 N load; however, the load bearing capacity of the coating was found to be insufficient to resist the wear damage under 5 N load. The higher specific wear rates of the MgO coating under 5 N load and that of the ZrO₂ coating under 2 N and 5 N loads were attributed to the poor load bearing capacity and a three-body-abrasive wear mechanism.     

Plasma electrolytic oxidation coating on AZ91 magnesium alloy modified by neodymium and its corrosion resistance

Ceramic coatings on the surfaces of Mg-9Al-1Zn (AZ91) magnesium alloy and Mg-9Al-1Zn-1Nd magnesium alloy (AZ91 magnesium alloy modified by neodymium, named as AZ91Nd in this paper) are synthesized in aluminate electrolyte by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process, respectively. X-ray diffraction and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses show the PEO coating on the Mg-9Al-1Zn-1Nd alloy comprises not only MgO and Al₂O₃, which are found in the coating on the AZ91 alloy, but also a trace amount of Nd₂O₃. Microstructure observations indicate the addition of Nd can decrease the sizes of β phases and form Al₂Nd intermetallics in the AZ91 alloy. The fine β phases can effectively restrain the formation of unclosed-holes and greatly decrease the sizes of pores in the coating during the PEO process. In addition, the Al₂Nd intermetallics can be completely covered due to the lateral growth of the PEO coatings formed on the α and β phases. As a result, the coating on the AZ91Nd alloy possesses a dense microstructure compared with that on the AZ91 alloy. The following corrosion tests indicate the corrosion resistance of the PEO coating on the AZ91Nd alloy is evidently higher than that of the PEO coating on the AZ91 alloy.     

Characterization of microarc oxidation coatings formed on AM60B magnesium alloy in silicate and phosphate electrolytes

Microarc oxidation coatings on AM60B magnesium alloy were prepared in silicate and phosphate electrolytes. Structure, composition, mechanical property, tribological, and corrosion resistant characteristics of the coatings was studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and microhardness analyses, and by ball-on-disc friction and potentiodynamic corrosion testing. It is found that the coating produced from the silicate electrolyte is compact and uniform and is mainly composed of MgO and forsterite Mg₂SiO₄ phases, while the one formed in phosphate electrolyte is relatively porous and is mainly composed of MgO phase. The thick coating produced from a silicate electrolyte possesses a high hardness and provides a low wear rate (3.55 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/Nm) but a high friction coefficient against Si₃N₄ ball. A relatively low hardness and friction coefficient while a high wear rate (8.65 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/Nm) is recorded during the testing of the thick coating produced from a phosphate electrolyte. Both of these types of coatings provide effective protection for the corrosion resistance compared with the uncoated magnesium alloy. The coating prepared from the silicate electrolyte demonstrates better corrosion behavior due to the compacter microstructure.     

Corrosion and wear properties of PEO coatings formed on AM60B alloy in NaAlO2 electrolytes

Coatings with a thickness of 22-32 μm were formed on an AM60B magnesium alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) in electrolytes containing 12.0-24.0 g/l NaAlO₂ and other additives. SEM analyses of the coated samples showed that the coatings were compact with relatively low porosity. X-ray diffraction revealed that the coatings consisted of mainly MgAl₂O₄ and MgO phases. The relative amount of MgAl₂O₄ in the coating increased with increasing NaAlO₂ concentration. The relatively compact and thick coatings provide good corrosion protection for magnesium, as indicated by the results of potentiodynamic polarization tests. In addition, the PEO treatment also significantly improved the wear resistance of the alloy. Pin-on-disk wear tests showed that the PEO treatment reduced the wear volume loss by a factor of 10.     

Formation of titania composite coatings on carbon steel by plasma electrolytic oxidation

Titania composite coatings were prepared on carbon steel by plasma electrolytic oxidation in silicate electrolyte and aluminate electrolyte with titania powers doping in the electrolytes. The microstructure of the coatings was characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The properties of the coatings including bond strength, thickness, thermal shock resistance and corrosion resistance varying with the quantities of titania powers in the electrolytes were studied. Investigation results revealed that the coating obtained in silicate electrolyte was composed of anatase-TiO₂, rutile-TiO₂ crystal phases and some Fe, Si, P elements; coating obtained in aluminate electrolyte consisted of anatase-TiO₂, Al₂TiO₅ and some Fe, P elements. Coatings obtained in two types of electrolytes show porous and rough surface. With increasing the concentration of titania powers in the electrolytes, the coating surface first became more compact and less porous and then became more porous and coarse. The bond strength and thickness were not strongly affected by concentration of titania powers in electrolytes. The valves were 23 MPa and for 66 μm for coatings obtained in aluminate electrolyte, and 21 MPa and 35 μm for coatings obtained in silicate electrolyte. Coatings obtained in silicate electrolyte showed a little better thermal shock resistance than those obtained in aluminate electrolyte and the best coatings were obtained with middle concentration of titania powers in the electrolytes. All coated samples showed better corrosion resistance than the substrate in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution. The best coatings were also obtained with middle concentration of titania powers doping in both electrolytes whose corrosion current density was decreased by 2 orders of magnitude compared with the substrate.     

Growth characteristics of plasma electrolytic oxidation ceramic coatings on Ti-6Al-4V alloy

The aim of this work is to discuss the growth characteristics of the ceramic coatings on Ti alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) technique. Ceramic coatings were prepared on Ti alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation in different electrolyte solutions under different pulse modes. The composition and the structure of the coatings were investigated by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), respectively. The amount of the dissolved titanium into the electrolytes during PEO process was measured by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES). The structure and the composition of the coatings were related to the mode of the spark discharge during PEO process. (a) Under the pulsed single-polar mode: In Na₃PO₄ solution, the spark discharge was mainly due to the breakdown of the oxide film, and the coatings prepared were porous and mainly structured by the Ti from the substrate. In K₄ZrF₆-H₃PO₄ and NaAlO₂-Na₃PO₄ solutions, the main mode of the spark discharge was the breakdown of the oxide film at the initial stage, and then changed into the breakdown of the vapor envelope, and the coatings were rough and thick, and mainly structured by the elements from the electrolyte. (b) Under the pulsed bi-polar mode in NaAlO₂-Na₃PO₄ solution, the spark discharge may be mainly due to the breakdown of the oxide film, the coatings prepared were dense in inner layer and loose in outer layer, and structured by the elements from both the substrate and the electrolyte. Besides, the ICP-AES analyses showed that the amount of the dissolved titanium in the electrolyte during PEO process was more under the breakdown of the oxide film than under the breakdown of the vapor envelope, which was consistent with the changes of the structure of the coatings. Cathode pulse in the pulsed bi-polar mode increased the amount of the dissolved titanium in the electrolyte, compared with the pulsed single-polar one.     

Effect of surface roughness on leakage current and corrosion resistance of oxide layer on AZ91 Mg alloy prepared by plasma electrolytic oxidation

The influence of the surface roughness of Mg alloys on the electrical properties and corrosion resistance of oxide layers obtained by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) were studied. The leakage current in the insulating oxide layer was enhanced by increasing the surface roughness, which is a favorable characteristic for the material when applied to hand-held electronic devices. The variation of corrosion resistance with surface roughness was also investigated. The corrosion resistance was degraded by the increasing surface roughness, which was confirmed with DC polarization and impedance spectroscopy. Pitting corrosion on the passive oxide layer was also analyzed with a salt spray test, which showed that the number of pits was not affected by the surface roughness when the spray time reached 96 h.     

Effects of ultrasound on the evolution of plasma electrolytic oxidation process on 6061Al alloy

The plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process of 6061Al alloy was carried out under the conditions with and without the assistance of ultrasound, respectively. The effects of ultrasound on the evolution of voltage, micro-discharge, morphology and composition of PEO coatings were investigated. The results show that ultrasound can greatly decrease the dielectric breakdown voltage of the coatings, increase the number of micro-discharges while decrease their average size, promote the evolution of micro-discharges, decrease the number and the average size of residual discharge pores in the coatings after 30 min of the process, promote the homogeneous distribution of elements and the formation of α-Al₂O₃ and 3Al₂O₃⋅2SiO₂ in the coatings.     

Chemical treatment of TiO2-based coatings formed by plasma electrolytic oxidation in electrolyte containing nano-HA, calcium salts and phosphates for biomedical applications

TiO₂-based coatings were formed on titanium alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) in an electrolyte containing nano-HA, calcium salts and phosphates. Bioactive surface was formed after chemical treatment (NaOH aqueous solution) of the PEO coating. The surface of the PEO coating was mainly composed of Ti, O, Ca and P showing anatase and rutile; while that of the chemically treated PEO (CT-PEO) coating mainly contains Ti, O, Ca and Na showing anatase, rutile and amorphous phase. And the chemically treated surface exhibits dissolution of P and introduction of Na during the chemical treatment process. The chemical treatment has no effect on the chemical states of Ca and Ti of the PEO coating. In addition, the surface constituents of the CT-PEO coating show a uniform distribution near its surface with increasing depth. When incubated in a simulated body fluid for 7 and 14 days, the PEO coating does not exhibit apatite-forming ability; however, apatite was successfully deposited on the CT-PEO coating after 7 days probably due to the formation of hydroxyl functionalized surface, enhancing the heterogeneous nucleation of apatite. The addition of nano-HA in the electrolyte has effects on the surface character and apatite-forming ability of the PEO coating; however, it has no obvious influence on those of the CT-PEO coatings.     

Characterization of oxide coatings formed on tantalum by plasma electrolytic oxidation in 12-tungstosilicic acid

Oxide coatings were formed on tantalum by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process in 12-tungstosilicic acid. The PEO process can be divided into three stages with respect to change of the voltage-time response. The contribution of electron current density in total current density during anodization results in the transformation of the slope of voltage-time curve. The surface morphology, chemical and phase composition of oxide coatings were investigated by AFM, SEM-EDX, XRD and Raman spectroscopy. Oxide coating morphology is strongly dependent of PEO time. The elemental components of PEO coatings are Ta, O, Si and W. The oxide coatings are partly crystallized and mainly composed of WO₃, Ta₂O₅ and SiO₂. Raman spectroscopy showed that the outer layer of oxide coatings formed during the PEO process is silicate tungsten bronze.     

Microstructure, bonding strength and thermal shock resistance of ceramic coatings on steels prepared by plasma electrolytic oxidation

Ceramic coatings were successfully prepared on steel by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) in aluminate electrolyte and silicate electrolyte, respectively. The microstructure of the coatings including surface morphology, phase and element composition were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), respectively. The bonding strength between the ceramic coating and the substrate was tested using different methods including tensile tests and shearing tests. The thermal shock resistance of the coatings was also evaluated. The results indicated that coatings obtained in both electrolytes were porous and coarse. The average diameters of the pores were below 10 μm. PEO coatings obtained in aluminate electrolyte were composed of Fe₃O₄ and FeAl₂O₄, while those obtained in silicate electrolyte were in a noncrystal state. PEO coatings obtained in aluminate electrolyte showed similar change trend of tensile strength and shearing strength with increasing treating time, namely, a relatively high values with middle time treating and low value with short and long time treating. The best coating was the samples treated with 30 min, whose tensile strength was 20.6 MPa and shearing strength was 16 MPa. The tensile strength and shearing strength of coatings obtained in silicate electrolyte were not strongly influenced by the treating time, the values of which were range in 14 ± 2 MPa and 11 ± 2 MPa, respectively. Coatings obtained in both electrolytes showed the best thermal shock resistance with middle time treating. Coatings obtained in silicate electrolyte show a little better thermal shock resistance than those obtained in aluminate electrolyte.     

Effect of potassium fluoride in electrolytic solution on the structure and properties of microarc oxidation coatings on magnesium alloy

Oxide coatings were produced on AM60B magnesium alloy substrate making use of microarc oxidation (MAO) technique. The effect of KF addition in the Na₂SiO₃-KOH electrolytic solution on the microarc oxidation process and the structure, composition, and properties of the oxide coatings was investigated. It was found that the addition of KF into the Na₂SiO₃-KOH electrolytic solution caused increase in the electrolyte conductivity and decrease in the work voltage and final voltage in the MAO process. Subsequently, the pore diameter and surface roughness of the microarc oxidation coating were decreased by the addition of KF, while the coating compactness was increased. At the same time, the phase compositions of the coatings also varied after the addition of KF in the electrolytic solution, owing to the participation of KF in the reaction and its incorporation into the oxide coating. Moreover, the coating formed in the electrolytic solution with KF had a higher surface hardness and better wear-resistance than that formed in the solution without KF, which was attributed to the changes in the spark discharge characteristics and the compositions and structures of the oxide coatings after the addition of KF.     

Fabrication of functionally gradient nanocomposite coatings by plasma electrolytic oxidation based on variable duty cycle

Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) was applied on the surface of commercially pure titanium substrates in a mixed aluminate-phosphate electrolyte in the presence of silicon nitride nanoparticles as suspension in the electrolyte in order to fabricate nanocomposite coatings. Pulsed current was applied based on variable duty cycle in order to synthesize functionally gradient coatings (FGC). Different rates of variable duty cycle (3, 1.5 and 1%/min), applied current densities (0.06-0.14 A/cm²) and concentrations of nanoparticles in the electrolyte (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 g l⁻¹) were investigated. The nanopowder and coated samples were analyzed by atomic force microscope, scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope. The influence of different rates of variable duty cycle (or treatment times) on the growth rate of nanocomposite coatings and their microhardness values was investigated. The experimental results revealed that the content of Si₃N₄ nanoparticulates in the layer increases with the increase of its concentration in the plasma electrolysis bath. Nanocomposite coatings fabricated with lower rate of variable duty cycle have higher microhardness with smoother microhardness profile.     

Structure and mechanical properties of ceramic coatings fabricated by plasma electrolytic oxidation on aluminized steel

Ceramic coatings were formed by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) on aluminized steel. Characteristics of the average anodic voltages versus treatment time were observed during the PEO process. The micrographs, compositions and mechanical properties of ceramic coatings were investigated. The results show that the anodic voltage profile for processing of aluminized steel is similar to that for processing bulk Al alloy during early PEO stages and that the thickness of ceramic coating increases approximately linearly with the Al layer consumption. Once the Al layer is completely transformed, the FeAl intermetallic layer begins to participate in the PEO process. At this point, the anodic voltage of aluminized steel descends, and the thickness of ceramic coating grows more slowly. At the same time, some micro-cracks are observed at the Al₂O₃/FeAl interface. The final ceramic coating mainly consists of γ-Al₂O₃, mullite, and α-Al₂O₃ phases. PEO ceramic coatings have excellent elastic recovery and high load supporting performance. Nanohardness of ceramic coating reaches about 19.6 GPa.     

Microstructure characteristic of ceramic coatings fabricated on magnesium alloys by micro-arc oxidation in alkaline silicate solutions

Micro-arc oxidation (MAO) of AZ31B magnesium alloys was studied in alkaline silicate solutions at constant applied current densities. The microstructure, phase composition and elemental distribution of ceramic coatings were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDX). There are two inflections in the voltage-time response, three regions were identifiable and each of the regions was almost linear. The pores with different shapes distributed all over the coating surface, the number of the pores was decreasing, while the diameter was apparently increasing with prolonged MAO treatment time. There were also cracks on the coating surface, resulting from the rapid solidification of the molten oxide. The ceramic coating was comprised of two layers, an outer loose layer and an inner dense layer. The ceramic coating was mainly composed of forsterite phase Mg₂SiO₄ and MgO; the formation of MgO was similar to conversional anodizing technology, while formation of Mg₂SiO₄ was attributed to a high temperature phase transformation reaction. Presence of Si and O indicated that the electrolyte components had intensively incorporated into coatings.     

Kinetic aspects of aluminium titanate layer formation on titanium alloys by plasma electrolytic oxidation

The paper reports on a systematic investigation into the effects of process parameters on the growth kinetics and associated changes in the structure, phase composition and mechanical properties of surface layers formed on Ti–6Al–4V alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) treatment in 0.05–0.2 mol l⁻¹ solutions of sodium aluminate. Methods of gravimetric, SEM and XRD analysis, as well as microhardness and scratch testing, are employed to investigate mass transfer and phase-structure transformations in the surface layer. The probable mechanisms of layer formation are discussed, which comprise electrochemical oxidation of the Ti-electrode by OH⁻ anions, complimented by chemical precipitation of Al(OH)₃ and plasma-induced transformations in the surface discharges. Running with a total yield efficiency of 20–30%, these processes lead to the formation of predominantly the Al₂TiO₅ phase with heterogeneous precipitation of Al₂TiO₅·TiO₂ and 3Al₂TiO₅·Al₂O₃ eutectics. Al- and Ti-enriched constituents of this structure show hardnesses of 1050–1480 and 300–845 H_K, 0.02, respectively. The layer growth rate increases with increasing electrolyte concentration, providing a maximum thickness of over 60 μm and a surface roughness (R_a) of 3–4 μm. Increasing the electrolyte pH from 12.0 to 12.8 results in smoothing and thickening of the surface layer but a lower sample weight gain, associated with an enhancement of the Ti electro-oxidation process. Morphological changes during PEO formation of the surface layer include gradual transformation of the original fine grained but porous structure into a dense, fused morphology which is adversely affected by discharge-induced thermal stresses, causing a degradation of the layer adhesion strength.     

Improvement of corrosion properties of microarc oxidation coating on magnesium alloy by optimizing current density parameters

The microstructure, composition and corrosion performance of oxide coatings formed on AM60B alloy using microarc oxidation techniques at different waveforms of applied current densities were investigated within this study. It is found that the use of optimizing current density waveforms, i.e. decaying freely current density in the later stage and stepped decreasing current density, significantly improved the microstructure of oxide coatings compared with the constant current density mode, which are connected with changes in behaviors of spark discharges on the surface in oxidation process. The optimal waveform of current density is showed to be decaying freely current density in the later stage, which results in sealing the originally formed large micropores. The optimisation of the microstructure results in a significant improvement of the corrosion resistance of oxide coating.     

Investigation of the voltage and time effects on the formation of hydroxyapatite-containing titania prepared by plasma electrolytic oxidation on Ti-6Al-4V alloy and its corrosion behavior

Producing titania and hydroxyapatite (HA) bioceramic coating on titanium alloys increases corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of these alloys. Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) is one of the effective techniques for producing this type of coating. This method produces coatings with enough thickness and appropriate adhesion. In this study, titania and HA were directly produced on Ti-6Al-4V by applying PEO process in a Ca- and P-containing electrolyte by changing voltage and time parameters. Morphology and cross section, chemical composition and elements of coatings were investigated by scanning electron microscope, X-ray diffraction and energy dispersive spectroscopy, respectively. Corrosion behavior of the samples was also examined by potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The results indicated that the formation of HA phase with titania needs a minimum voltage below which HA is not formed. By increasing the operation time, the amount of the formed HA increased. Also, the sample coated at 500 V and 15 min showed the best corrosion behavior in Ringer's solution.