Exploring Between the Extremes: Conversion‐Dependent Kinetics of Phosphite‐Modified Hydroformylation Catalysis

The kinetics of the hydroformylation of 3,3‐dimethyl‐1‐butene with a rhodium monophosphite catalyst has been studied in detail. Time‐dependent concentration profiles covering the entire olefin conversion range were derived from in situ high‐pressure FTIR spectroscopic data for both, pure organic components and catalytic intermediates. These profiles fit to Michaelis–Menten‐type kinetics with competitive and uncompetitive side reactions involved. The characteristics found for the influence of the hydrogen concentration verify that the pre‐equilibrium towards the catalyst substrate complex is not established. It has been proven experimentally that the hydrogenolysis of the intermediate acyl complex remains rate limiting even at high conversions when the rhodium hydride is the predominant resting state and the reaction is nearly of first order with respect to the olefin. Results from in situ FTIR and high‐pressure (HP) NMR spectroscopy and from DFT calculations support the coordination of only one phosphite ligand in the dominating intermediates and a preferred axial position of the phosphite in the electronically saturated, trigonal bipyramidal (tbp)‐structured acyl rhodium complex.     

Exploring between the extremes: conversion-dependent kinetics of phosphite-modified hydroformylation catalysis

The kinetics of the hydroformylation of 3,3-dimethyl-1-butene with a rhodium monophosphite catalyst has been studied in detail. Time-dependent concentration profiles covering the entire olefin conversion range were derived from in situ high-pressure FTIR spectroscopic data for both, pure organic components and catalytic intermediates. These profiles fit to Michaelis-Menten-type kinetics with competitive and uncompetitive side reactions involved. The characteristics found for the influence of the hydrogen concentration verify that the pre-equilibrium towards the catalyst substrate complex is not established. It has been proven experimentally that the hydrogenolysis of the intermediate acyl complex remains rate limiting even at high conversions when the rhodium hydride is the predominant resting state and the reaction is nearly of first order with respect to the olefin. Results from in situ FTIR and high-pressure (HP) NMR spectroscopy and from DFT calculations support the coordination of only one phosphite ligand in the dominating intermediates and a preferred axial position of the phosphite in the electronically saturated, trigonal bipyramidal (tbp)-structured acyl rhodium complex.     

CO在超临界水中的转化以及碱性钾盐的影响

构建了CO高压溶解的进气系统,在连续式反应系统中对超临界水条件下CO的转化规律进行了研究;针对生物质超临界水气化中钾盐的多样性,选择KHCO₃、K₂CO₃和KOH等三种钾盐成分,研究了它们在不同工艺条件（450-600℃、23-29 MPa、停留时间3-6 s）下对超临界水中水煤气转化过程的影响。结果表明,在无催化条件下,提高反应温度、延长停留时间均提高了CO的转化率,而压力对其影响在低压下（23-25 MPa）比较大,高压下（25-29 MPa）比较小,水煤气转化的反应动力学方程为k=10^3.75×exp（-0.66×10⁵/RT）（s^-1）。碱性钾盐均能显著提高CO转化率,其催化促进程度从大到小依次为：KHCO₃>K₂CO₃>KOH。添加碱性钾盐时,提高反应温度、延长停留时间均提高CO转化率,而压力的影响比较复杂。碱性盐对水煤气转化反应的催化是通过草酸盐（HC₂O₄^-）和甲酸盐（HCOO^-）作为中间产物进行的。     

Gas chromatographic investigation of the competition between mass transfer and kinetics on a solid catalyst

The reversed-flow gas chromatography (RF-GC) method is used to investigate the competition between mass transfer and kinetics in heterogeneous catalysis. The well-studied dissociative adsorption of carbon monoxide over a silica supported rhodium catalyst at various temperatures is used as model system. The Thiele-type modulus phis, and the effectiveness factor eta are calculated for both adsorbate (CO) and product (CO2), from the experimental chromatographic peaks. The values experimentally found are similar to those predicted theoretically and give interesting information for the mechanism of the interaction of carbon monoxide with the catalyst studied.     

The industrial hydroformylation of olefins with a rhodium-based supported liquid phase catalyst (SLPC): III. The kinetics of propylene hydroformylation catalyzed by the rhodium-based supported liquid phase catalyst

Hydridocarbonyltris(triphenylphosphine)-rhodium(I), dissolved in triphenylphosphine and capillary condensed in the pores of α-Al₂O₃, was studied as a catalyst for hydroformylation of propylene. The activity and selectivity for n-butyraldehyde were measured in the range 90 – 110 °C. Even up to a degree of conversion of 25 mol.% propylene no deactivation was found at 110 °C. Varying the partial pressures of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and propylene gave the reaction orders. With respect to propylene the order is 1.57. The other reaction orders are smaller than 0.1. The stability of the catalyst depends mainly on the partial pressure of CO. At p_CO = 0.180 MPa the catalyst is stable. The activation energy is then 70.6 kJ mol⁻¹. The selectivity to n-butyraldehyde is increased by lowering p_CO. The lowest ratio of n-butyraldehyde to the isoproduct is 14.     

Kinetic model and mechanism of the selective oxidation of CO in the presence of hydrogen on platinum catalysts

The reaction kinetics of the selective oxidation of carbon monoxide in the presence of hydrogen on a Pt/carbon support catalyst was studied. It was found that this catalyst exhibited high activity and decreased the concentration of CO in a hydrogen-containing gas from 0.6–1.0 vol % to less than 10 ppm at the inlet concentration ratio O₂/CO = 1.0–1.5. A kinetic model of the reaction was proposed to describe quantitatively the experimental results.     

Rh/SiO~2和Rh/NaY催化剂上合成气反应的高压原位 红外光谱研究

采用高压原位FT-IR技术,对比研究了CO加H~2反应条件下Rh/SiO~2和Rh/NaY催化剂表面反应中间物种。在Rh/SiO~2表面上,无论在常压还是在1.0MPa合成气中,只观察到线式和桥式吸附CO。而在常压合成气中,Rh/NaY上不仅存在上述CO吸附物种,而且还有孪生型的Rh(Ⅰ)(CO)~2和少量Rh~6(CO)~1~6;当合成气压力升至1.0MPa后,Rh(Ⅰ)(CO)~2迅速转化成Rh~6(CO)~1~6和在2042cm^-^1产生吸收的单核羰基Rh物种,与此同时催化剂表面还生成了单齿和双齿乙酸根物种;这些在高压下生成的物种在合成气压力重新降回到常压时依然稳定存在。研究Rh/NaY上合成气反应表面物种与H~2的反应行为表明单齿乙酸根很可能是反应的活性中间物。这些结果说明Rh/NaY催化剂在高压合成气中的重构是诱发选择生成乙酸反应的基础。     

Kinetics of hydroformylation of 1-decene using carbon-supported ossified HRh(CO)(TPPTS)3 catalyst

The kinetics of hydroformylation of 1-decene has been investigated using a carbon-supported ossified HRh(CO)(TPPTS)₃/Ba catalyst in a temperature range of 343–363 K. The effect of concentration of 1-decene, catalyst loading, partial pressure of H₂ and CO, and stirring speed on the reaction rate has been investigated. A first-order dependence was observed for catalyst concentration and hydrogen partial pressure. The rate showed a typical case of substrate inhibition for high 1-decene concentration. The rate varied with a linear dependence on P_CO up to a CO partial pressure of 5–6 MPa in contrast to the general trends; for most of the rhodium-phosphine catalyzed hydroformylation reactions, severe inhibition of rate is observed with an increase in CO pressure. A rate equation has been proposed, which was found to be in good agreement with the observed rate data within the limit of experimental errors. The kinetic parameters and activation energy values have been reported.     

Rhodium-catalyzed highly selective thioformylation of acetylenes with thiols and carbon monoxide

Highly regioselective thioformylation of terminal acetylenes with thiols and carbon monoxide has been developed by the use of rhodium(I) complexes as the catalyst: formyl and thio groups are introduced into the terminal and inner positions of acetylenes, respectively. The thioformylation is performed in the presence of a catalytic amount of rhodium(I) complexes, such as RhH(CO)(PPh₃)₃, RhCl(PPh₃)₃, and RhCl(CO)(PPh₃)₂, under the pressure of CO (3 MPa) at 120°C in CH₃CN to provide β-thio-α,β-unsaturated aldehydes in good yields. This thioformylation can be applied to a variety of terminal acetylenes and aromatic thiols. A mechanistic proposal includes the formation of the rhodium sulfide complex as the key species.     

Asymmetric Synthesis of Hydrocarbazoles Catalyzed by an Octahedral Chiral‐at‐Rhodium Lewis Acid

A bis‐cyclometalated chiral‐at‐metal rhodium complex catalyzes the Diels–Alder reaction between N‐Boc‐protected 3‐vinylindoles (Boc=tert‐butyloxycarbonyl) and β‐carboxylic ester‐substituted α,β‐unsaturated 2‐acyl imidazoles with good‐to‐excellent regioselectivity (up to 99:1) and excellent diastereoselectivity (>50:1 d.r.) as well as enantioselectivity (92–99 % ee) under optimized conditions. The rhodium catalyst serves as a chiral Lewis acid to activate the 2‐acyl imidazole dienophile by two‐point binding and overrules the preferred regioselectivity of the uncatalyzed reaction.     

Studies on the Synthesis of Sulfur-Containing Polymer-Rhodium Complexes and Their Use as Catalysts for Hydroformylation

A kind of nonphosphine polymer catalyst has been synthesized by partial substitution of the chlorine atoms of poly(vinyl chloride) with -SR groups (n-propyl, n-hexyl, benzyl, and p-tolyl). Rhodium complexes of these sulfur-containing polymer ligands are highly active catalysts for the hydroformylation of α-olefins. At 60°C and 60 kg/cm², conversion of 1-hexene was nearly complete within 4–6 h. The rhodium to 1-hexene mole ratio was 1/800 to 1/1 000, and the catalyst could be reused once again without losing activity. The effects of reaction temperature, pressure, H₂/CO ratio, S/Rh ratio, concentration of catalyst, and reaction time on the catalyst's activity were examined. The possible mechanism of hydroformylation is discussed. A copolymer of butyl vinyl sulfide and acrylonitrile was synthesized and its rhodium complex was prepared. The catalytic acitvities of this complex for the hydroformylation of 1-hexene was also investigated.     

A Rhodium Catalyst Superior to Iridium Congeners for Enantioselective Radical Amination Activated by Visible Light

A bis‐cyclometalated rhodium(III) complex catalyzes a visible‐light‐activated enantioselective α‐amination of 2‐acyl imidazoles with up to 99 % yield and 98 % ee. The rhodium catalyst is ascribed a dual function as a chiral Lewis acid and, simultaneously, as a light‐activated smart initiator of a radical‐chain process through intermediate aminyl radicals. Notably, related iridium‐based photoredox catalysts reported before were unsuccessful in this enantioselective radical C?N bond formation. The surprising preference for rhodium over iridium is attributed to much faster ligand‐exchange kinetics of the rhodium complexes involved in the catalytic cycle, which is crucial to keep pace with the highly reactive and thus short‐lived nitrogen‐centered radical intermediate.     

Evidence of Structure Sensitivity in the Fischer–Tropsch Reaction on Model Cobalt Nanoparticles by Time‐Resolved Chemical Transient Kinetics

The Fischer–Tropsch process, or the catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide (CO), produces long chain hydrocarbons and offers an alternative to the use of crude oil for chemical feedstocks. The observed size dependence of cobalt (Co) catalysts for the Fischer–Tropsch reaction was studied with colloidally prepared Co nanoparticles and a chemical transient kinetics reactor capable of measurements under non‐steady‐state conditions. Co nanoparticles of 4.3 nm and 9.5 nm diameters were synthesized and tested under atmospheric pressure conditions and H₂/CO=2. Large differences in carbon coverage (Θ_C) were observed for the two catalysts: the 4.3 nm Co catalyst has a Θ_C less than one while the 9.5 nm Co catalyst supports a Θ_C greater than two. The monomer units present on the surface during reaction are identified as single carbon species for both sizes of Co nanoparticles, and the major CO dissociation site is identified as the B₅‐B geometry. The difference in activity of Co nanoparticles was found to be a result of the structure sensitivity caused by the loss of these specific types of sites at smaller nanoparticle sizes.     

Synthesis and polymerization of (E)‐p‐[(p‐methoxyphenyl)‐2‐ethenyl]phenylacetylene with Ziegler–Natta,rhodium, and palladium complexes

The synthesis and polymerization of (E)‐p‐[(p‐methoxyphenyl)‐2‐ethenyl]phenylacetylene was carried out with a homogeneous vanadium acetylacetonate/aluminum triethyl catalyst system, a bis(rhodium chloride cycloocta‐1,5‐diene) complex, and a palladium/trimethylsilyl complex. In all cases, the main fraction was a polymer with a stereoregular structure. The polymerization with the vanadium catalyst gave a polymer fraction in a low yield. The polymerization of (E)‐p‐[(p‐methoxyphenyl)‐2‐ethenyl]phenylacetylene with the soluble rhodium complex gave a polymer in a high yield. The soluble palladium/chlorotrimethylsilane complex gave a polymer in a good yield. On the basis of the spectroscopic data, the poly{(E)‐p‐[(p‐methoxyphenyl)‐2‐ethenyl]phenylacetylene)} obtained, in all cases, showed a cis–transoidal stereoregular structure. The molecular mass of poly{(E)‐p‐[(p‐methoxyphenyl)‐2‐ethenyl]phenylacetylene)} was determined by the matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight technique. The kinetics of the reaction were analyzed. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Polym Sci Part A: Polym Chem 43: 6438–6444, 2005     

水溶性钯膦络合物催化1-辛烯的氢羧基化反应

利用水溶性配体TPPTS与Pd（OAc）2在水相中催化1-辛烯的氢羧基化反应,能实现有机相产物与水相催化剂的清洁分离和催化剂的循环利用．分别考察了钯浓度、表面活性剂（CTAB）、酸助剂、反应时间、CO压力以及温度对该反应的影响．在H2O=16mL,C（Pd）=2．0mmol／L,C（TPTS）／c（Pd）=25,C（p...     

Formation Mechanism of the First Carbon–Carbon Bond and the First Olefin in the Methanol Conversion into Hydrocarbons

The elementary reactions leading to the formation of the first carbon–carbon bond during early stages of the zeolite‐catalyzed methanol conversion into hydrocarbons were identified by combining kinetics, spectroscopy, and DFT calculations. The first intermediates containing a C?C bond are acetic acid and methyl acetate, which are formed through carbonylation of methanol or dimethyl ether even in presence of water. A series of acid‐catalyzed reactions including acetylation, decarboxylation, aldol condensation, and cracking convert those intermediates into a mixture of surface bounded hydrocarbons, the hydrocarbon pool, as well as into the first olefin leaving the catalyst. This carbonylation based mechanism has an energy barrier of 80 kJ mol^?1 for the formation of the first C?C bond, in line with a broad range of experiments, and significantly lower than the barriers associated with earlier proposed mechanisms.     

High‐Curvature Transition‐Metal Chalcogenide Nanostructures with a Pronounced Proximity Effect Enable Fast and Selective CO2 Electroreduction

A considerable challenge in the conversion of carbon dioxide into useful fuels comes from the activation of CO₂ to CO₂^.? or other intermediates, which often requires precious‐metal catalysts, high overpotentials, and/or electrolyte additives (e.g., ionic liquids). We report a microwave heating strategy for synthesizing a transition‐metal chalcogenide nanostructure that efficiently catalyzes CO₂ electroreduction to carbon monoxide (CO). We found that the cadmium sulfide (CdS) nanoneedle arrays exhibit an unprecedented current density of 212 mA cm^?2 with 95.5±4.0 % CO Faraday efficiency at ?1.2 V versus a reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE; without iR correction). Experimental and computational studies show that the high‐curvature CdS nanostructured catalyst has a pronounced proximity effect which gives rise to large electric field enhancement, which can concentrate alkali‐metal cations resulting in the enhanced CO₂ electroreduction efficiency.     

EFFECT OF CATALYST CONCENTRATION ON CATALYTIC PERFORMANCE IN LIQUID PHASE DIMETHYL ETHER SYNTHESIS FROM SYNGAS

利用ＺＳＭ－５型沸石可将轻烃选择性地转化为苯，甲苯和二甲苯。ＨＺＳＭ－５催化剂上丙烷转化率和芳烃选择性都很低，但在ＨＺＳＭ－５上添加Ｇａ或Ｐｔ－Ｇａ（双金属改性）后丙烷转化率和芳烃选择性都有很大提高。实验结果表明，Ｇａ／ＨＺＳＭ－５催化剂经氢气高温预处理后，其上的Ｂｒｏ．．ｎｓｔｅｄ酸中心数目减少。铂的加入促进了镓物种的还原，而还原的镓物种可以中和相当一部分催化剂表面Ｂｒ．ｎｓｔｅｄ酸中心，然后形成高度不饱和的催化活性中心。这些中心可以作为Ｌｅｗｉｓ中心，从丙烷和反应中间产物中拔除Ｈ－，使丙烷高选择性地生成芳烃     

Catalytic Aminomethylation of Alkenoic Compounds: I. Reaction of monoolefins with secondary amines,carbon monoxide,and water in the presence of rhodium and iron catalysts

Reactions, in the presence of rhodium oxide and/or iron pentacarbonyl, of cyclic or acyclic higher olefins with carbon monoxide, water, and secondary amines to give the corresponding aminomethyl-cycloalkanes or -alkanes (equ. 1) are described. As catalyst rhodium oxide is by far superior to iron carbonyl; however, optimum results are obtained with combinations of the two. The method can be applied to synthesis of long-chain alkylamines, which are valuable as intermediates for synthetic detergents.     

Rh(I)-catalyzed CO gas-free carbonylative cyclization of organic halides with tethered nucleophiles using aldehydes as a substitute for carbon monoxide

The CO gas-free carbonylative cyclization of organic halides, with tethered nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon nucleophiles, with aldehydes as a substitute for carbon monoxide can be achieved in the presence of a catalytic amount of a rhodium complex. The reaction involves the decarbonylation of the aldehyde by the rhodium catalyst, and the successive carbonylation of an organic halide utilizing the rhodium carbonyl that is formed in situ. Aldehydes having electron-withdrawing groups showed a higher ability to donate the carbonyl moiety.