Effect of optical penetration on laser generatedthermoelastic ultrasound in solids

I.IntroductionTbegenerationofu1trasoundbytheirradiationofpulsedlaseratso1idsurfacehasbeenwidelystlldied,boththeorctica1lyandexpcrimentallyI1-8].Intheprocessoflaserthermoelasticg6nerationofu1trasound,temperatureriseinduccdbytheabsorptionoflaserenergyproducestherma1expansion,andthcnanultrasonicsourceiscreated.Sofar,thestudyof1asergenera-honofultrasoundinso1idsconcentratesmain1yonmeta1s,anduntilrecent1y,1ittleattentionhasbenpaidtonon-mctals.Inametal,1aserenergyisabsorbedonlyatthesurfaceofthesamp…     

Integrated photoelasticity for nondestructive residual stress measurement in glass

The paper gives a review of integrated photoelasticity and of its application for residual stress measurement in glass. By considering the basic theory of the method, two particular cases, the case of weak birefringence and that of constant principal stress axes, are picked up. It is shown that integrated photoelasticity is actually optical tensor field tomography. Its peculiarities in comparison with scalar field tomography are considered. Since directly integrated photoelasticity allows for the measurement of only some of the stress components, analytical or numerical methods are to be used for complete determination of the stress field. Nonlinear optical phenomena, interference blots and fringe bifurcation, are briefly considered. Several examples illustrate the application of the method.     

检测固体内应力分布的热弹新技术

由非线性的热弹理论,建立并求解了在一线热扰动下存在初始应力媒质中的热传导方程和运动方程。并由压电方程,得出耦合在试样背表面的压电换能器的输出电压与初始应力之间的关系式。利用光声和扫描电子声显微镜技术,对铝合金试样上维氏硬度压痕内的残余应力分布进行了实验测定。实验结果成功地揭示了压痕区内存在的交替的弹塑性应力分布,进一步证实了热弹技术是极有应用前景的无损定量评估材料内应力的新技术。     

Investigation on stress distribution of multilayered composite structure (MCS) using infrared thermographic technique

In this paper, the thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA) on a multilayered composite structure (MCS) was investigated by means of lock-in thermographic image technique (LITI). The application of thermoelastic stress analysis on MCS becomes particularly complicated due to consisting of different material components, which determines the different thermoelastic coupling response depended on material thermal-physical property. The thermoelastic coupling constants (TCC) of GFRP, medium-carbon steel and foam were obtained through thermomechanical calibration experiments, respectively. An artificial neural network was proposed to determine the component of MCS. Comparisons between finite element analysis (FEA) and LITI measurement are reported. It is found that the stress distribution of MCS can be evaluated with good accuracies using LITI measurement.     

Sensitivity analysis of full field methods for residual stress measurement

The hole drilling technique is a well known experimental method for residual stress investigation. This technique is usually used in combination with electrical strain gauges but there is no reason to enforce this choice and other approaches, in particular some full-field optical techniques, can be advantageously used. Since all these techniques give full field data, it becomes important to properly use this redundant information content to increase the robustness and reliability of the analysis.In this work, various well known approaches to the hole drilling/full-field data analysis will be investigated using a two-step approach. In the first one, a sensitivity analysis will be performed on the simpler algorithms and then the reliability of the methods will be estimated by Montecarlo analysis using a known displacement field as a reference.     

极紫外多层膜残余应力初步研究

 针对极紫外多层膜在激光等离子体诊断、极紫外光刻等方面的应用,进行了Mo/Si多层膜残余应力的实验研究,讨论了多层膜残余应力的成因。实验结果表明：Mo单层膜表现为张应力, Si单层膜表现为压应力;通过传统方法制备的13.0 nm处高反射率的40对Mo/Si多层膜会产生-500 MPa左右的压应力,其压应力主要是由膜层之间的贯穿扩散引起的;通过改变膜层比率可以在一定程度上补偿因贯穿扩散产生的压应力,但是以牺牲多层膜反射率为代价。     

SQUID用于铍材残余应力检测的计算机模拟

依据SMM-601型超导量子干涉显微镜检测部分构建计算模型,采用电磁场有限元方法分析了残余应力引起的非磁性金属材料铍电导率变化对超导量子干涉仪(SQUID)检测信号的影响,并讨论了该方法实际应用于非磁性金属材料残余应力检测的条件和可能性。     

Proposition of a compensated pixelwise calibration for photonic infrared cameras and comparison to classic calibration procedures: Case of thermoelastic stress analysis

In this paper, we propose a compensated pixelwise calibration that integrates the effects of the camera housing temperature. The results of this calibration are compared on black body images to classic two points Non Uniformity Correction based calibrations, compensated or not. It is shown that the proposed approach leads to a significant improvement in the thermal resolution with a reduction in the mean error as well as the standard deviation. The approach is finally challenged on a real case measurement focusing on thermoelasticity. The gain in terms of accuracy measurement is highlighted by comparing the proposed calibration to classic calibrations and the scope of interest of this new calibration is discussed.     

Analysis by speckle interferometry of the dependency of yield stress on residual stress

We used electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) to measure in situ displacement fields nondestructively and with high resolution (10⁻² μm) by using the interferometry principle and the phase-shift technique. We measured the depth profile of the residual stress in steel pipe manufactured by thermomechanically controlled processing using a quantitative model, which explains the relationship between residual stress and displacement measured by ESPI in chemical etching. We analyzed the variation of yield stresses measured by the indentation technique and the residual stresses at various depths. The relationship between the residual stresses and the yield stresses was consistent with simulated results and can be used for indirect evaluation of the residual stresses from the yield stresses.     

Raman microprobe spectroscopy measurements of residual stress distribution along blisters in Cr2O3 thin films

Raman spectroscopy has been used to characterise the buckling phenomenon of Cr₂O₃ films obtained by oxidation in air at 900 °C of Ni33 at%Cr. The observed circular blisters are described by measuring the radius from the optical top view, the profile via an autofocus device and the residual stress in each point of the chromia film: far away from the centre of the blister, in the vicinity and across the blister. The subsequent spalls are related to the morphology of the blisters and to the stress.     

光学薄膜残余应力分配预测模型计算方法研究

残余应力是光学薄膜研究的一个重要组成部分，它对光学元器件有很大的影响。根据弹性力学原理，基于应变不匹配，提出了一种可以预测薄膜残余应力分配的理论模型计算方法，并将计算结果与干涉仪测量值进行了对比。利用所建立的模型分析了薄膜参数变化时基底残余应力的变化情况。结果表明：所建模型合理；随着镀膜温度的增加，基底总残余应力随镀膜温度升高而呈增大的趋势;本征应力变化不太大；随着基底厚度的减小，基底上下表面应力呈增大的趋势，而薄膜应力则呈减小趋势，但变化趋势很小。基底的中心轴约位于基底上表面以下2／3处。     

Novel processing of Barkhausen noise signal for assessment of residual stress in surface ground components exhibiting poor magnetic response

The Barkhausen Noise Analysis (BNA) technique has been utilised to assess surface integrity of steels. But the BNA technique is not very successful in evaluating surface integrity of ground steels that exhibit poor micro-magnetic response. A new approach has been proposed for the processing of BN signal and two newly proposed parameters, namely ‘count’ and ‘event’, have been shown to correlate linearly with the residual stress upon grinding, with judicious choice of user defined ‘threshold’, even when the micro-magnetic response of the work material is poor. In the present study, residual stress induced upon conventional plunge surface grinding of hardened bearing steel has been investigated along with unhardened bearing steel for benchmarking. Moreover, similar correlation has been established, when primarily compressive stress is induced upon high speed grinding using cBN wheel with moderately deep cut suppressing the micro-magnetic response from the ground medium carbon steel as the work material.     

An application of Raman spectroscopy on the measurement of residual stress in porous silicon

The porous silicon film, at micron level, and the bulk silicon substrate is a basic structure in MEMS components. The residual stress, due to the lattice mismatch between the film and the substrate, exists on the interface and may cause cracking and damaging on the component. Micro-Raman spectroscopy is an optical measurement method that was rapidly applied into the fields of chemistry, physics, material science and mechanics. In this paper, the method is introduced and applied to the study of the stress problems in porous silicon as follows. (1) In the electrochemical etching technique for porous silicon preparation, the distribution of the tensile residual stress along the transitional region between etched and un-etched area is experimentally studied and the result reveals the stress is continuous across the region. In the etched region it reaches GPa level, and in the transition region the gradient of the stress is high. (2) In chemical etching preparation of porous silicon, the residual stress rises up seriously in the cracked area, up to 0.92 GPa. With the porosity increasing, the tensile stress on the porous silicon film increases accordingly. The appearance of the porous silicon film surface is also given by metalloscope and atomic force microscope. The structure of the micro-pores is expected to have a close relation with the distribution of the residual stress.     

Thermal evolution of residual stress in IN718 alloy subjected to laser peening

The thermal relaxation behaviors of residual stresses induced by laser peening (LP) in IN718 alloy were investigated using an integrated numerical simulation and experimental approach. LP and heat treatments (HT) were carried out after which the X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique was employed in measuring the residual stresses. Micro-structures were observed using an optic microscope (OM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Dislocations induced by LP were also observed by TEM and characterized using the XRD technique. The effects of the applied temperature and the exposure time on residual stress and micro-structures were investigated. The results show that the extent of the residual stresses relaxation increased accordingly with the increase in the applied temperature. The relaxation rate was initially high and tended to stabilize for a longer exposure time. Grain size evolution during the process was subsequently discussed. Furthermore, a conceivable mechanism of residual stresses thermal relaxation behavior was obtained.     

沉积温度对HfO2薄膜残余应力的影响

 用电子束蒸发方法制备了HfO₂薄膜，根据镀膜前后基片曲率半径的变化，用Stoney公式计算了薄膜应力，讨论了沉积温度对薄膜残余应力的影响。结果发现，HfO₂薄膜的残余应力均为张应力，应力值随沉积温度的升高先增大后减小，在280 ℃左右出现极大值。对样品进行了XRD测试，从微观结构上对实验结果进行了分析，发现微结构演变引起的内应力变化是引起薄膜残余应力改变的主要因素，HfO2薄膜在所选沉积温度60~350 ℃内出现了晶态转变，堆积密度随温度升高而增大。     

Reducing the residual stress in micro electroforming layer by megasonic agitation

In order to reduce the large residual stress in micro elelctroforming layer, megasonic assisted electroforming is proposed here. Micro electroforming experiments were performed with and without megasonic agitation, respectively. Four different megasonic power densities were applied to investigate the influence of megasonic agitation on reducing the residual stress. The residual stress was measured by X-ray diffraction (XRD) method. Experiment results show that the residual stresses fabricated with megasonic agitation are less than that fabricated without megasonic. When the megasonic power density is 2 W/cm², the residual stress can be the minimum value of −125.7 MPa, reduced by 60% in comparison with the value of −315.1 MPa electroformed without megasonic agitation. For exploring the mechanism of megasonic agitation on reducing the residual stress, the dislocation density and crystal orientation were calculated by the single-line Voigt profile analysis and Relative Texture Coefficient (RTC) method, respectively. The diameters and distributions of pits on the surface of electroforming layer were observed by the STM-6 tool microscope and counted by the Image-Pro Plus software. It reveals that one hand of the mechanism is the acoustic streaming produced by megasonic can strengthen the motion of dislocation in crystal lattice and makes the crystal lattices grow towards the equilibrium shape, which is benefit to crystallization with low residual stress. When the megasonic power density is 2 W/cm², the dislocation density increases to be the maximum value of 8.09 × 10¹⁵ m⁻² and the difference between RTC_{(1 1 1)} and RTC_{(2 0 0)} decreases to be zero, which is consistent with the residual stress results. The other hand is that the stable cavitation produced by megasonic can provide residual stress release points during the electroforming process.     

Abnormal residual stress in nanostructured Al thin films grown on Ti/glass substrates

The residual stress and micro-structural properties of nanostructured Al thin films prepared by electron beam evaporator are studied. The films were grown on Ti/glass substrates at normal and oblique angles of inclination. The average aspect ratio of Al nanorods produced at an oblique angle of incidence of 85°, increased from 2.2 to 6.0, as the thickness of the films increased from 100 nm to 600 nm. The column tilt angle of Al nanorods was observed to be in close agreement with the theoretical value. The XRD pattern of nanostructured Al thin films showed (111) planes oriented parallel to the substrate surface. The crystallite size was observed to be ～9 nm for all the films produced at oblique angle deposition (OAD). Abnormal residual stresses were determined in the films produced at OAD. The nanocrystalline films produced at normal angle, exhibited tensile residual stress, while, the residual stresses in the films produced at oblique angles of inclination (α = 65°, 75°), were observed to be compressive. Residual stress-free nanocolumnar Al films (Al nanorod films) were observed, when they were grown at an oblique angle of inclination of 85°.     

Effect of Young's modulus evolution on residual stress measurement of thermal barrier coatings by X-ray diffraction

Subjected to thermal cycling, the apparent Young's modulus of air plasma-sprayed (APS) 8 wt.% Y₂O₃-stabilized ZrO₂ (8YSZ) thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) was measured by nanoindentation. Owing to the effects of sintering and porous microstructure, the apparent Young's modulus follows a Weibull distribution and changes from 50 to 93 GPa with an increase of thermal cycling. The evolution of residual stresses in the top coating of an 8YSZ TBC system was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The residual stresses derived from the XRD data are well consistent with that obtained by the Vickers indention. It is shown that the evolution of Young's modulus plays an important role in improving the measurement precision of residual stresses in TBCs by XRD.     

HL-2A等离子体边缘极向剩余胁强的研究

首次报导了托卡马克等离子体边缘与湍流相关的极向剩余胁强剖面的测量结果。采用外中平面往复式静电探针阵列对HL-2A托卡马克边缘的极向湍流动量输运进行研究。在没有外部动量注入的欧姆放电下,剩余胁强为有限值、且其空间剖面在等离子体边缘具有明显的径向梯度,表明托卡马克等离子体边缘存在极向动量源。由动量源产生的动量主要以扩散形式向与剩余胁强相反的方向传播,最终的结果是等离子体边缘存在有限的雷诺胁强。在最后闭合磁面以内0.5~2cm区域,剩余胁强的梯度提供自发旋转的力矩,由该力矩引起的动量产生与由速度梯度引起的动量扩散共同导致了雷诺胁强出现负梯度,造成动量沉积,从而驱动极向平衡流。     

Effect of deposition condition on residual stress of iron nitride thin films prepared by magnetron sputtering and ion implantation

The surface roughness and residual stress development in Fe-N thin films prepared by compound technology—combining magnetron sputtering with plasma based ion implantation were investigated by means of atomic force microscope and synchrotron radiation. The results indicate that the grain size of the thin film increases with the increasing of nitrogen ion implantation time, and the state of residual stress is related closely to the formation mechanism of thin films. With the nitrogen ion implantation time increasing, the residual stress of the thin film changes into tensile stress from initial compressive stress, and the tensile stress decreases with the further increasing of ion implantation time.