On the mechanics of braided composites in tension

An experimental investigation is reported on the uniaxial tensile behaviour of braided tubes, comprising glass fibres in an epoxy matrix. The failure mode switches from fibre fracture to neck propagation when the helix angle, defined as the angle between the fibre direction and the axis of the tube, exceeds about 45°. The observed neck geometry is used to deduce the evolution of deformation and damage within the matrix, and a work calculation is used to estimate the steady state neck propagation stress from a micromechanical model of braid deformation. A failure chart is constructed to show the effect of braid geometry on elastic modulus, yield strength, strain to failure and energy absorption of the braid.     

Simulation of failure under cyclic plastic loading by damage models

The purpose of this work is to simulate the evolution of ductile damage and failure involved by plastic strain reversals using damage models based on either continuum damage mechanics (CDM) or porosity evolution. A low alloy steel for pressure vessels (20MnMoNi55) was chosen as reference material. The work includes both experimental and simulation phases. The experimental campaign involves different kinds of specimens and testing conditions. First, monotonic tensile tests have been performed in order to evaluate tensile and ductile damage behaviour. Then, the cyclic yielding behaviour has been characterized performing cyclic plasticity tests on cylindrical bars. Finally, cyclic loading tests in the plastic regime have been made on different round notched bars (RNBs) to study the evolution of plastic deformation and damage under multiaxial stress conditions. The predictions of the different models were compared in terms of both, the specimens macroscopic response and local damage. Special emphasis was laid on predictions of the number of cycles prior to final failure and the crack initiation loci.     

High-Rate Progressive Failure of Borosilicate Glass under Mechanical Confinement at High Temperatures

In this study, we experimentally determined the dynamic response of a damaged borosilicate glass at different temperatures, damage levels and confinement pressures. The initiation and evolution of damage during the loading process were also examined. An improved double-pulse loading Kolsky compression bar, integrated with a non-contact high temperature testing system and a single loading momentum trap system, was used to characterize the high-rate mechanical behavior of a damaged borosilicate glass. Specimen deformation was interrupted at different strain levels to reveal damage evolution with increasing strain. The results show that the equivalent flow strength of damaged borosilicate glass depends linearly on the hydrostatic pressure; however the variation of temperature has little effects on the strength. Through post-mortem SEM analysis, the failure in an intact specimen was found to be initiated in the form of axial splitting. Further loading on the splitted specimens induced catastrophic buckling of the columns which converted the specimens into small fragments. Shear zones became evident in the compacted fragments as deformation further accumulated. The propagation of the shear zones to the entire specimen eventually led to full comminution of the borosilicate glass material.     

Effects of inter-fibre spacing on damage evolution in unidirectional (UD) fibre-reinforced composites

A three dimensional (3D) micromechanical study has been performed in order to investigate local damage in UD composite materials under transverse and longitudinal tensile loading. In particular, the influence of non-uniform distribution of fibres in RVEs (representative volume element) with a hexagonal packing array and the effects of thermal residual stresses has been investigated. To examine the effect of inter-fibre spacing and residual stress on failure, a study based on the Maximum Principal Stress failure criterion and a stiffness degradation technique has been used for damage analysis of the unit cell subjected to mechanical loading. Results indicate a strong dependence of damage onset and its evolution from the fibres position within the RVE. Predicted mechanical properties, damage initiation and evolution are also clearly influenced by the presence of residual stress.     

Endommagement d'un composite polypropylène renforcé par des fibres de verre courtes : approche expérimentale

To obtain good mechanical performance of the composite material, it is important to optimise the fibres ratio as well as the fibre/matrix interface quality which have influence on the damage. The main objective of this study is to determine the structural parameters influence on damage evolution concerning two types of polypropylene glass fibres composites. With a classical approach of damage mechanical theory which consists of load–unload tensile tests, acoustic emission permits to detect and follow damage mechanisms during loading. Fractographic analysis highlights the different assumptions and conclusions for this study.     

Micromechanisms of deformation and fracture of polypropylene nonwoven fabrics

The micromechanisms of deformation and fracture in tension were analyzed in a commercial polypropylene nonwoven geotextile material in a wide range of strain rates. Two different loading scenarios (smooth and notched specimens) were considered to study how these mechanisms are modified in presence of a stress concentration. The nonwoven fabric presented significant deformability and energy-absorption capability, which decreased with the strain rate, together with a high level of strength, which increased with strain rate. In addition, the material was notch-insensitive as the stress concentration around the crack tip was relieved by marked nonlinear behavior, which induced crack blunting. Different experimental techniques (standard mechanical tests, in situ testing within the scanning electron microscope, digital image correlation, etc.) were used to establish the sequence of deformation and failure processes and to link these micromechanisms with the macroscopic behavior.     

冻融环境下红砂岩力学特性试验及损伤分析

将实验研究与损伤力学理论分析相结合,对红砂岩进行饱水状态下的冻融循环试验及不同冻融次数下的力学特性试验,分析了岩石的冻融损伤劣化过程,系统研究了岩石的变形破坏规律及损伤扩展力学特性.研究表明:红砂岩呈现出剥落和断裂的冻融损伤劣化模式;随着冻融次数的增加,岩石的强度及弹性模量急剧降低,并表现出压密性增大、弹性减弱、塑性增强的特征;岩石初始细观结构的缺陷经过损伤的非线性演化,表现出宏观力学性能的劣化.     

On the application of FEM to deformation of high-density polyethylene

This paper presents a study that uses finite element method (FEM) to simulate deformation behaviour of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) when subjected to tensile loading, either without or with the presence of pre-cracks. For the former, dog-bone-shaped model of HDPE was deformed under uni-axial tensile (UT) loading beyond the initial yielding, to generate stable necking in the gauge section. The paper proposes a simple correction factor to determine the equivalent von Mises stress that is needed for the input to the FEM model, in order to generate the same loading level as that observed experimentally for neck propagation. The paper points out that such consistency in the loading level could not be generated in the past mainly because of a misconception that axial stress in the neck was regarded as the equivalent of the von Mises stress. The study also explored the consideration of crack growth in double-edge-notched tensile (DENT) specimen, and showed that the conventional von Mises yield function, with the assumption of isotropic work hardening, cannot be directly applied to simulate the deformation behaviour of DENT specimen. Instead, empirical parameters were employed to reflect the polymer orientation during the necking process. The paper shows that FEM models for both UT and DENT tests can reproduce the experimental load–displacement curves quite accurately, and concludes that with a proper yield function to reflect the deformation involved in the mechanical tests, the deformation behaviour observed experimentally can be accurately mimicked using the FEM simulation.     

Nonlinear damage model for seismic damage assessment of reinforced concrete frame members and structures

A nonlinear damage model based on the combination of deformation and hysteretic energy and its validation with experiments are presented. Also, a combination parameter is defined to consider the mutual effect of deformation and hysteretic energy for different types of components in different loading stages. Four reinforced concrete (RC) columns are simulated and analyzed using the nonlinear damage model. The results indicate that the damage evolution evaluated by the model agrees well with the experimental phenomenon. Furthermore, the seismic damage evolution of a six-story RC frame was analyzed, revealing four typical failure modes according to the interstory drift distribution of the structure; the damage values calculated using the nonlinear damage model agree well with the four typical failure modes.     

Numerical simulation of plastic deformation and damage accumulation in structural materials under various low-cycle loading conditions

This paper presents the results of a finite-element study of elastic-plastic deformation and damage accumulation in structural materials under various cyclic loading conditions. Material behavior is described by the relations of damage mechanics using thermoplastic model which takes into account the plastic deformation of material under cyclic loading and the kinetic equations of the energy theory of damage accumulation. The basic laws of plastic deformation and development of damage in materials under hard, soft, symmetric, and asymmetric low-cycle loading are established.     

Unusual plastic deformation and damage features in titanium: Experimental tests and constitutive modeling

In this paper, we present an experimental study on plastic deformation and damage of polycrystalline pure HCP Ti, as well as modeling of the observed behavior. Mechanical characterization data were conducted, which indicate that the material is orthotropic and displays tension-compression asymmetry. The ex-situ and in-situ X-ray tomography measurements conducted reveal that damage distribution and evolution in this HCP Ti material is markedly different than in a typical FCC material such as copper. Stewart and Cazacu (2011) anisotropic elastic/plastic damage model is used to describe the behavior. All the parameters involved in this model have a clear physical significance, being related to plastic properties, and are determined from very few simple mechanical tests. It is shown that this model predicts correctly the anisotropy in plastic deformation, and its strong influence on damage distribution and damage accumulation. Specifically, for a smooth axisymmetric specimen subject to uniaxial tension, damage initiates at the center of the specimen, and is diffuse; the level of damage close to failure being very low. On the other hand, for a notched specimen subject to the same loading the model predicts that damage initiates at the outer surface of the specimen, and further grows from the outer surface to the center of the specimen, which corroborates with the in-situ tomography data.     

Micromechanical analysis of polymer composites reinforced by unidirectional fibres: Part II – Micromechanical analyses

This paper presents the application of a new constitutive damage model for an epoxy matrix on micromechanical analyses of polymer composite materials. Different representative volume elements (RVEs) are developed with a random distribution of fibres. Upon application of periodic boundary conditions (PBCs) on the RVEs, different loading scenarios are applied and the mechanical response of the composite studied. Focus is given to the influence of the interface between fibre and matrix, as well as to the influence of the epoxy matrix, on the strength properties of the composite, damage initiation and propagation under different loading conditions.     

岩石破裂过程THMD耦合数值模型研究

从岩石的细观非均匀性特点出发,应用损伤力学、热力学和渗流力学理论,建立了岩体热(温度)-水(渗流)-岩(应力)-损伤耦合数值模型(THMD model),把岩石(体)THM耦合问题的研究从应力状态分析深入到损伤、破坏过程分析之中。探讨了THM耦合作用下岩石材料的细观结构损伤及其诱发的材料力学性能演化机制,并运用所提出方法计算温度-渗流-应力耦合作用下井筒近场围岩的稳定性,模拟得到的岩体破坏过程、应力分布、AE特性及渗流特性变化与现场标定结果有着一致的规律性,初步证明了该数值模型的合理性和有效性。THMD模型以简单的数值模型表征了岩石(体)中热、水、岩及损伤之间复杂的作用关系,为从细观损伤演化揭示宏观岩体温度-渗流-应力耦合破坏机制提供了一种新的数值分析方法。     

A theory for large deformation and damage of interpenetrating polymer networks

Elastomers and gels can be formed by interpenetrating two polymer networks on a molecular scale. This paper develops a theory to characterize the large deformation and damage of interpenetrating polymer networks. The theory integrates an interpenetrating network model with the network alteration theory. The interpenetration of one network stretches polymer chains in the other network and reduces its chain density, significantly affecting the initial modulus, stiffening and damage properties of the resultant elastomers and gels. Double-network hydrogels, a special type of interpenetrating polymer network, have demonstrated intriguing mechanical properties including high fracture toughness, Mullins effects, and necking instability. These properties have been qualitatively attributed to the damage of polymer networks. Using the theory, we quantitatively illustrate how the interplay between polymer-chain stiffening and damage-induced softening can cause the Mullins effect and necking instability. The theory is further implemented into a finite-element model to simulate the initiation and propagation of necking instability in double-network hydrogels. The theoretical and numerical results are compared with experimental data from multiple cyclic compressive and tensile tests.     

Modeling the low-cycle fatigue behavior of visco-hyperelastic elastomeric materials using a new network alteration theory: Application to styrene-butadiene rubber

Although several theories were more or less recently proposed to describe the Mullins effect, i.e. the stress-softening after the first load, the nonlinear equilibrium and non-equilibrium material response as well as the continuous stress-softening during fatigue loading need to be included in the analysis to propose a reliable design of rubber structures. This contribution presents for the first time a network alteration theory, based on physical interpretations of the stress-softening phenomenon, to capture the time-dependent mechanical response of elastomeric materials under fatigue loading, and this until failure. A successful physically based visco-hyperelastic model is revisited by introducing an evolution law for the physical material parameters affected by the network alteration. The general form of the model can be basically represented by two parallel networks: a nonlinear equilibrium response and a time-dependent deviation from equilibrium, in which the network parameters become functions of the damage rate (defined as the ratio of the applied cycle over the applied cycle to failure). The mechanical behavior of styrene-butadiene rubber was experimentally investigated, and the main features of the constitutive response under fatigue loading are highlighted. The experimental results demonstrate that the evolution of the normalized maximum stress only depends on the damage rate endured by the material during the fatigue loading history. The average chain length and the average chain density are then taken as functions of the damage rate in the proposed network alteration theory. The new model is found to adequately capture the important features of the observed stress-strain curves under loading-unloading for a large spectrum of strain and damage levels. The model capabilities to predict variable amplitude tests are critically discussed by comparisons with experiments.     

Nonlinear viscoelastic multi-scale repetitive unit cell model of 3D woven composites with damage evolution

Three-dimensional (3D) textile composites have great potential applications to aircrafts and high speed vehicles because of the high strength/weight ratios and the capabilities of manufacturing complex, net-shape preforms. This paper reports the nonlinear viscoelastic responses and damage mechanisms of one kind of 3D textile composites, named as 3D orthogonal woven composite (3DOWC) under quasi-static tensile loading based on a micro/meso-scale repetitive unit cells (RUCs) model. In the RUCs model, the resin is described with a nonlinear viscoelastic material and the fibers/tows with an elastic material. The damage initiation and propagation in resin are simulated by the post-damage constitutive models with maximum principal theory failure criteria. The fibers/tows impregnated with resin are defined by elastic transverse-isotropic material model with ultimate strengths failure of ‘expanded smeared crack’ both along and perpendicular to fibers/tows axis direction. The engineering parameters and ultimate strengths of homogenized fibers/tows filled with matrix in meso-RUCs model are transferred from the numerical analysis of the micro-RUCs. The results are compared with experimental and theoretical values of RUC deformation and damage initiation and propagation under monotonic axial loading. The methodology of establishing the nonlinear visco-elastic multi-scale model of 3D textile composites without introducing the real fabric architecture in finite element analyses is explained. With the multi-scale RUCs model, the mechanical behaviors of other kinds of 3D textile composites can also be predicted.     

Mechanical behaviour of the upper layers of a sandy loam soil under shear loading

The mechanical behaviour of the upper layers of a sandy loam soil was studied under standard triaxial compression and direct shear box tests. Variations of soil material properties were investigated at four different initial dry bulk densities of 1410, 1520, 1610 and 1670 kg/m³. Soil deformation and volume change under the triaxial compression loading were also studied at these bulk densities. Results from the two tests showed increases in the soil mechanical properties with the initial dry bulk density. The internal friction angle values measured with the triaxial compression apparatus exceeded those measured with the direct shear box. In contrast, the soil cohesion values measured with the direct shear box exceeded those measured with the triaxial compression apparatus. Under the triaxial compression test, the loose soil samples underwent contraction and volume reduction, whereas the dense samples swelled and failure cracks appeared clearly at various planes. The soil contraction for the former case characterizes the occurrence of soil compaction, whereas the cracks propagation and volume increase in the latter case characterizes the breaking up and loosening of soil during tillage operations. For the loose and moderately compacted states, the engineering Poisson's ratio increased with the axial strain until loading was completed. It also increased at the compacted and very compacted states until reaching given loading stages, after which its value started to decrease. This shifting in the engineering Poisson's ratio during loading may provide another identification of the moment of soil failure occurrence, in addition to that of the maximum shear stress.     

含热冲击预损伤的陶瓷基复合材料损伤本构模型

陶瓷基复合材料结构在服役过程中不可避免地经受热冲击(较高的热应力梯度)而产生热机械损伤, 因此, 建立含循环热冲击预损伤材料的损伤本构模型, 以描述材料在热机械载荷作用下的力学行为, 对材料结构损伤容限设计与结构完整性评估非常重要. 本文首先对经历了循环热冲击的材料进行单调拉伸损伤实验, 发现对于含循环热冲击预损伤的材料, 其弹性模量的下降与所施加的应变直接相关. 然后在连续介质损伤力学的框架下, 基于平面应力假设, 建立了含循环热冲击预损伤材料的损伤演化模型, 该模型所涉及的参数可通过一个偏轴(45$^\circ$)以及两个正轴(平行于两个主方向)的单调拉伸试验获得. 最后, 采用经典塑性理论对由基体损伤引起的非弹性应变进行了描述. 本文所提出的应变损伤宏观模型可以描述陶瓷基复合材料在热机械载荷作用下的损伤演化, 同时弥补了含预损伤的陶瓷基复合材料在机械载荷下损伤本构模型在理论及实验研究方面的不足.