Ion current generation in the field ion microscope: II. quasi-static approach

The field ion current is calculated for helium on tungsten, for various fields, and for various values of tip temperature and gas temperature on the basis of the balance equation developed by Van Eekelen. The expression of ion current by rate constants for ionization and for escape, the total supply and the capture probability is derived. The behaviour of ion current as a function of other parameters is discussed in the light of these equilibrium properties of the system. Field adsorption effects are also considered. The increase of the mass ratio of the gas atom to the metal atom causes the increase of ion current even if ionization probability is decreased by the field adsorption. Anomalous features of the field ion image at 4.2 K are discussed.     

Calculations of field ionization in the field ion microscope

The ionization of a gas atom as it occurs in the field ion microscope is discussed. A wide range of values for the electric field intensity at the metal surface are considered in calculating the ionization occurring both far away from and close to the tip. Ionization distribution curves are calculated and electric fields strengths are determined at points where the distributions peak. Calculations of ionization zone widths and best image conditions are made and a new interpretation of best image conditions is considered. A new field calibration method is suggested.     

Effect of interaction between AC electric field and phonon oscillation of metal cluster on tip-growth of carbon nanotube

The paper reports effect of interaction between AC electric field and metal cluster sitting at tip end of the carbon nanotube (CNT) on CNT tip-growth in CVD theoretically. For this purpose, a theoretical model based on phonon oscillations of the metal catalyst and influence of AC electric field on these oscillations is presented. Results show that there is an optimum AC electric field which optimizes growth of ultra-long CNTs. Then it is demonstrated that, in comparison with CNTs in the absence of field, CNTs under optimum electric field grow more. In addition, relation between optimum temperature and amplitude of AC electric field is investigated and it is shown that increasing electric field leads to higher optimum temperature. Finally, Investigation of effect of catalyst type on optimum electric field demonstrates the optimum field for various catalysts is different due to their different characteristics including van der Waals interaction with carbon, atomic mass and number of free charge carriers per each atom. All results are discussed and interpreted.     

Long range and temperature-dependent interaction between an alkali atom and a metallic surface; application to surface ionization

For explaining some long range and temperature dependent charge transfer involved in surface processes dealing with particles leaving a surface, we extend the usual chemisorption theory to larger distances. Treating the interaction of an alkali atom (lithium and sodium) on a metal surface (rhenium) in the chemisorption model, we introduce the temperature in the expression for the effective charges of the adsorbed atom. These effective charges are shown to be very sensitive to the temperature for atom-surface distances larger than 5 Bohr radii. The Coulomb repulsion effect between opposite spin electrons on the adsorbed particle allows us to describe the effective charges of both the positive and negative adsorbed ions. We apply our treatment to the positive surface ionization of thermal particles and give a new expression of the degree of ionization which asymptotically tends to the values of the Saha-Langmuir law. We found that the surface ionization process occurs at distances slightly decreasing with increasing temperatures, which are of the order of 13 Bohr radii for lithium on rhenium and of 15 Bohr radii for sodium on rhenium.     

Field ionization theory: A new,analytic, formalism

A new formalism for the calculation of field ionization rate-constants near a model metal surface is derived. Approximate analytic formulae are given for the ionization rate-constant of an atom as a function of distance from the metal surface, for the total probability of ionization on a single pass through the ionization zone and for the width of the ionization zone. Theoretical estimates of best image fields are given for gas atoms of interest in field ion microscopy. The clarity of approach and computational ease of the method is shown to be compatible with the production of acceptably accurate results.     

A 2-dimensional detector with high spatial and temporal resolution for metastable rare gas atoms

We describe a detector for metastable rare gas atoms which allows the investigation of transverse atomic beam distributions on the single atom level with lateral dimensions of 1 m, which occur frequently in the field of atom optics. In contrast to existing detection techniques, the conversion step from the metastable atom to an electron is separated from the charge amplification to improve spatial resolution. The conversion is performed at a metal surface, which is followed by an electron-optical system imaging the electron distribution with a proper magnification onto a single electron detection unit. The spatial resolution that we achieve with this technique is on the order of 1 m, the temporal resolution on the order of 1 s. The application of the detector for atom interferometry is discussed. Received: 22 May 1996 / Revised version: 21 June 1996     

Inelastic processes in the scattering of metastable rare gas atoms at metal surfaces

Electron spectra of various metastable rare gas atoms systematically measured on a Pt(111) surface with Rb coverages ranging from submonolayers (3%) to multilayers are presented. The different decay channels of the excited particles are discussed in terms of resonant electron exchange processes between the substrate and the projectile in relation to the work function. It is shown that below a certain value of the work function a highly excited negative rare gas atom is formed which can undergo different de-excitation processes. A careful discussion of the branching ratios into the decay channels offers a natural explanation of the variations in the electron spectra induced by alkali metal adsorption. Additionally, an attempt is made to extract information about the alkali metal chemisorption state from the observed electron spectra.     

The kinetics of field adsorption

In an applied field of ～ 1 V/Å or higher, gas atoms and molecules near the electrode surface can be attracted to the surface and be field adsorbed there. Field adsorption can occur at a temperature much higher than that in ordinary physical adsorption. For example, field adsorption of He and Ne on metal surfaces can occur at a temperature above 100 K. The kinetic of field adsorption on spherical, cylindrical and field ion emitter surfaces are discussed. Methods for measuring the field adsorption energy, the gas supply constant, and other physical parameters using the pulsed-laser time-of-flight atom-probe are described. These parameters are essential for describing the kinetics of field adsorption. We consider field adsorption and desorption of both atomic and molecular gases. In molecular gases, field dissociation of field desorbed species can occur. A proper account of this effect has to be included in the data analysis. A case with two adsorption states at different adsorption sites is also considered. Field adsorption must play an important role in the early stages of cloud formation, and in the adsorption-desorption and catalytical reactions on the surface of interstellar particles, etc.     

Pulse regime in formation of fractal fibers

The pulse regime of vaporization of a bulk metal located in a buffer gas is analyzed as a method of generation of metal atoms under the action of a plasma torch or a laser beam. Subsequently these atoms are transformed into solid nanoclusters, fractal aggregates and then into fractal fibers if the growth process proceeds in an external electric field. We are guided by metals in which transitions between s and d-electrons of their atoms are possible, since these metals are used as catalysts and filters in interaction with gas flows. The resistance of metal fractal structures to a gas flow is evaluated that allows one to find optimal parameters of a fractal structure for gas flow propagation through it. The thermal regime of interaction between a plasma pulse or a laser beam and a metal surface is analyzed. It is shown that the basic energy from an external source is consumed on a bulk metal heating, and the efficiency of atom evaporation from the metal surface, that is the ratio of energy fluxes for vaporization and heating, is 10^–3–10^–4 for transient metals under consideration. A typical energy flux (~10⁶ W/cm²), a typical surface temperature (~3000 K), and a typical pulse duration (~1 μs) provide a sufficient amount of evaporated atoms to generate fractal fibers such that each molecule of a gas flow collides with the skeleton of fractal fibers many times.     

Gas Phase Emitter Effect of Thulium within Ceramic Metal Halide Lamps in Dependence on Frequency

The gas phase emitter effect within ceramic metal halide (CMH) lamps reduces the effective work function of the electrode material and, therewith, the electrode temperature. An investigation of the gas phase emitter effect of thulium (Tm) within CMH lamps seeded with Tm iodide (TmI3) is carried out. For this purpose, phase resolved images of the arc attachment and measurements of the electrode temperature, Tm atom and ion densities are performed in dependence on operating frequency by pyrometry and optical emission spectroscopy. Additionally, the influence of a sodium iodide (NaI) admixture is studied. The emitter effect is generated by means of a monolayer of Tm atoms on the electrode surface generated by a Tm ion current within the cathodic phase. It overlaps onto the anodic phase at higher frequencies of some hundreds of hertz. The reason is the finite life time of the monolayer, which is determined by the adsorption energy of Tm on the tungsten surface. Due to the low electric field strength in front of the anode and the mass inertia, the emitter ions and atoms remain in front of the anode. They retard the decay of the monolayer and with it the increase of the work function. Moreover, a comparison of a lamp seeded with TmI3 and sodium iodide (NaI) with a lamp seeded only with TmI3 illustrates a slight reduction of the electrode tip temperature caused by a higher Tm saturation vapour pressure and a higher Tm amount within the lamp filling. The influence of Na appears to be quite low. (© 2014 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Ignition of single nickel-coated aluminum particles

A thin coating of nickel on the surface of aluminum particles can prevent their agglomeration and at the same time facilitate their ignition, thus increasing the efficiency of aluminized propellants. In this work, ignition of single nickel-coated aluminum particles is investigated using an electrodynamic levitation setup (heating by laser) and a tube reactor (heating by high-temperature gas). The levitation experiments are used for measurements of the ignition delay time at different Ni contents in the particles. The high-temperature gas experiments are used to measure the critical ignition temperature. It is reported that the Ni coating dramatically decreases both the ignition delay time of laser-heated Al particles and the critical ignition temperature of gas-heated Al particles. A heat balance analysis of the levitated particles shows that the lower ignition temperature of Ni-coated Al particles is the most probable reason for the observed reduction in the ignition delay time. Exothermic intermetallic reactions between liquid Al and solid Ni are considered as the main reason for the lowered ignition temperature of Ni-coated Al particles.     

Al(111)表面单个Al原子的操纵── W针尖与Al原子的相互作用

为了较清楚地阐明扫描隧道显微镜针尖在样品表面原子操纵中的具体作用，根据第一性原理的离散变分理论计算，采用“团簇模型”研究了在无外加电场下，W针尖与样品Al(111)表面Al原子的相互作用．结果表明：随着W针尖与样品表面接近到一定程度（针尖与样品表面的距离S≤10a.u.(0.53nm))时，由于针尖原子与样品表面原子的相互作用，使位于针尖正下方的表面Al原子在脱离表面时感受到一稳定的势阱，即在无外场的情况下，当W针尖与样品Al(111)表面接近到一定程度时，由于针尖的吸引作用，将使针尖正下方的Al原子自动离开样品表面而移向W针尖，实现Al(111)表面单个Al原子的操纵． 关键词：     

STM-mediated atom motion: a Co atom and mixed CoCu<Subscript>n</Subscript> chains on a Cu(111) surface

Performing atomic scale simulations, we study the effect of the scanning tunneling microscopy tip on atom motion on a metal surface at zero bias voltage. We concentrate on a Co atom and mixed CoCu _n (n ? 68) chains on a Cu(111) surface. It is revealed that the atom motion can be tuned by adjusting the tip-substrate distance. The change in the potential landscape induced by the tip is found to depend on the tip height. In the presence of the tip, the Co atom can freely jump from the fcc site to the hcp site or vice versa when putting the tip above the adatom at a certain height. For the mixed CoCu _n chains on the Cu(111) surface, the diffusion barrier of the end Co atom from the fcc site to the nearby hcp site increases with the increasing chain length and reaches the limit when the chain length is beyond CoCu₇ without the tip. Especially, the short chains can perform a collective motion with the help of the tip. The importance of the relaxation induced by the tip-adatom interaction is demonstrated.     

Stability of coherent states of a Bose gas of two-level atoms in resonant laser field at zero temperature

It is shown that a two-level atom Bose gas in a strong resonant laser field at zero temperature is a mixture of two condensates with a certain density ratio. The stability criteria for stationary states of such a system relative to the increase in the amplitudes of quasi-Bogolyubov elementary excitations of the Bose gas are formulated. It is shown that, in addition to conventional acoustic mode, a mode gap exists with a gap proportional to the laser field amplitude. Under certain conditions, deviations from ideality of the gas may lead to instability and decomposition of the condensate.     

活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧的光谱与热分析

针对活性剂等离子弧焊焊接过程,利用光谱分析方法对活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧进行光谱分析,采用红外热像伪着色法测定活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧温度场,并建立活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧热流密度径向分布模型,对焊接电弧的成分及焊接电弧温度场进行了研究。研究结果表明,常规等离子焊焊接电弧以氩原子和氩一次电离离子的谱线为主,金属蒸气谱线不突出,焊接电弧以气体粒子为主,属于气体电弧;活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧的光谱中氩原子及氩一次离子谱线的辐射强度增强,Ti,Cr,Fe金属谱线大量涌现;活性剂等离子弧焊焊接电弧的温度分布比较紧凑,温度场外形窄,温度分布范围较集中,电弧径向温度梯度较大;电弧径向温度分布呈现正态Gauss分布模式。     

Field ion image qualities of Ga,In and Sn on W and work functions

It has been found previously that Ga, In and Sn form a pseudomorphic monolayer on W which maximizes the work function of the covered surface. In the present work the bright and sharp field ion images of the pseudomorphic monolayer are shown comparing the images of the substrate tungsten. The interesting finding is that the images of the covering layer are most distinct for Sn which gives rise to the largest increment in the work function, and are least for In which has the smallest work function increment. A simple calculation on the penetration probaility of an electron into the potential barrier between an imaging gas atom and a metal surface indicates that the probability increases significantly with the work function and consequently the covered area would be images brightly. The calculation also suggests that the work function, that is the surface charge distribution, is one of the key factors controlling the quality of the field ion images.     

STM images of transition metal surfaces: Theoretical study

We present a theoretical study of the influence of d orbitals on the evolution of the current tunnelling between the transition metal STM tip and the transition metal surface. This problem is considered for the system formed by Ni(001) surface and Pt tip. We have found that the tunnelling between d orbitals of the transition metal surface and of the apex atom of the transition metal tip may produce very sharp image of the metal surface, contrary to the tunnelling through weakly localized sp orbitals. The high effectivity of the tunnelling through this d-d channel is limited to very small tip-substrate separation. Presented at the VIII-th Symposium on Surface Physics, Třešt’ Castle, Czech Republic, June 28 – July 2, 1999. This work has been supported by the University of Wrocław within the grant No. 2016/W/IFD/98.     

熔石英表面加工引入金属微粒的三倍频激光损伤机制

 以材料表面金属元素吸收作为主线建立熔石英表面损伤模型,理论模拟了激光辐照过程中金属微粒周围温度场的变化,模型结果显示,在脉冲时间内微粒周围温度很快达到损伤判据给出的临界温度。通过激光损伤实验,对比刻蚀与未刻蚀样品之间的损伤密度,证实了金属微粒含量与损伤密度存在密切联系。计算结果和实验结果均表明：金属微粒是熔石英激光损伤中重要的吸收前驱体,极大降低了熔石英材料的表面抗损伤性能。     

Field evaporation of silicon surfaces

Quantitative measurements on field evaporation of Si(111) surfaces in hydrogen imaging gas have been carried out by field ion microscopy. The field evaporation rate is found to increase exponentially with increase of the reciprocal of tip temperature in the range 80–103 K. The evaporation field strength increases with increase of tip temperature in the investigated range, 80–300 K. Within the applied pressure range, 5× 10^?6 to 2 × 10^?4 Torr of hydrogen gas, the evaporation rate linearly increases with the gas pressure. Similar effects of temperature and gas pressure on field evaporation of Si(111) surfaces have been observed also in silane imaging gas. A model, based on a field-induced formation of surface hydrides as a rate-determining step, is proposed, which accounts for all the experimental results of the field evaporation process.     

Studies of the collision frequency of ideal gas particles with the surfaces of the objects created using the ballistic deposition technique

This paper is a continuation of our studies of the collision frequency of ideal gas particles with the rough/fractal surfaces. Here, we applied a more realistic surface growth model, i.e. ballistic deposition for creation of fractal objects. We found that the collision frequency with irregular surfaces is the linear function of pressure and this frequency per unit pressure is quite a complicated function of the surface fractal dimension as well as the diameter of colliding particle. The collision frequency with rough surfaces cannot be exactly described by the analytical formula called the Langmuir-Hertz equation. However, we have stated that the deviations of the true collision frequency from the Langmuir-Hertz prediction are not huge and in typical catalytic studies the error introduced by replacing the true frequency by the Langmuir-Hertz prediction can be safely neglected. We have also studied the probability of finding on the surface an atom which has been hit a certain number of times by a gas particle. This probability reveals an interesting behaviour for small gas particles, i.e. it perfectly correlates with the number of directions from which the surface atom is accessible from the gas phase. We have also estimated the evolution of the adsorption energy distribution with the increasing fractal dimension of the surface in the ballistic deposition.