Effects of substituents on activation parameters in SN2 reactions at aliphatic carbon in solution

Changes of the activation parameters in aliphatic S_N2 reactions with anionic and neutral nucleophiles in various solvents, ΔH^≠ and ΔS^≠, were correlated with σ constants of the substituents. The resultant δΔH^≠ and δΔS^≠ reaction constants are linearly related for variations of substituents at the substrate, leaving group and nucleophile. Correlations of δΔH^≠ versus δΔS^≠ allow the estimation of the contribution of changes of the internal enthalpy, δΔH, to the enthalpy reaction constant, δΔH^≠, which gives a single linear dependence on the Hammett ρ reaction constants. The deviations from the dependence of δΔH versus ρ can be interpreted in terms of changes in the transition state structure in S_N2 reactions. The results obtained show that the substituent effects on the charge development in the transition state are governed by the magnitude of δΔH. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simple method for determining of the isokinetic temperature value for the SNAr reactions in solution

The changes of the free energy of activation δ?G^≠_exp and the activation entropy δ?S^≠ in the framework of the isokinetic relationship δ?G^≠_exp versus (T_iso ? T_exp) δ?S^≠ were explored quantitatively to predict the isokinetic temperature T_iso for the aromatic nucleophilic substitution reactions in solution.     

Effect of substituents in phenol and aniline nucleophiles on activation parameters in SNAr reactions

Changes of activation parameters, ΔH^≠ and ΔS^≠, with σ constants of substituents in the phenol and aniline nucleophiles for their S_NAr reactions in various solvents give the δΔH^≠ and δΔS^≠ reaction constants which are linearly related. The dependence obtained, δΔH^≠ versus δΔS^≠, allow estimation of the contribution of changes of the internal enthalpy, δΔH^≠_int, to the enthalpy reaction constant, δΔH^≠, which give a linear dependence on the Hammett reaction constants, ρ. The results obtained show that the substituent effects on the charge development in the transition state (TS) are governed by the magnitude of δΔH^≠_int. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A theoretical study on the bimolecular reactions encountered in the pyrolysis of acetamide

Bimolecular reactions of acetamide with acetamide itself, acetimidic acid and acetic acid are investigated to account for the formation of the three major experimental products from the pyrolysis of acetamide, namely ammonia, acetic acid and acetonitrile. This mechanism involves bimolecular deammonation reactions to form acetamide anhydride, acetic anhydride and N‐acetyl acetamide, and the subsequent fragmentation of these intermediates into acetic acid and acetonitrile. It is found that the overall reaction barrier for the formation of the three major experimental products from the bimolecular reaction of acetamide with its enol form (acetimidic acid) amount to a 36.1 kcal/mol barrier. This barrier is in excellent agreement with the corresponding experimental data from the self‐condensation of acetamide. This finding stresses on the role of acetimidic acid as a major intermediate in the pyrolysis of acetamide. The calculated activation barriers for the two available pathways in the bimolecular reaction of acetamide and acetic acid into imide and N‐acetyl acetamide (36.3 kcal/mol and 24.0 kcal/mol) is in accord with the corresponding experimental activation energy of 30.1 kcal/mol for the autocatalytic reaction of acetamide with the acetic acid. Reaction rate constants are obtained for all plausible reactions. Kinetic data presented herein should be instrumental in building a robust model for the decomposition of N‐alkylated amides, that is, a major structural entity in biomass. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of steric effects on the kinetics and mechanism of SNAr reactions of 1‐phenoxy‐nitrobenzenes with aliphatic primary amines in acetonitrile

Rate constants are reported for the reactions of 1‐phenoxy‐dinitrobenzenes, 3 , 1‐phenoxy‐dinitrotrifluoromethylbenzenes, 4 , with n‐propylamine, and 1‐methylheptylamine in acetonitrile as solvent. The results are compared with results reported previously for n‐butylamine, pyrrolidine, and piperidine. Decreasing ring activation leads to lower values of k₁ for nucleophilic attack although this may be mediated by reduced steric congestion around the reaction centre. Specific steric effects, leading to rate retardation, are noted for the ortho‐CF₃ group. In general, reactant‐bearing ortho‐CF₃ group were subject to base catalysis irrespective of the amine nucleophile and values of k_Am/k_?1 are reduced as the size of the amine get bulkier. This is likely to reflect increases in values of k_?1 coupled with decreases in values of k_Am as the proton transfer from zwitterionic intermediates to catalysing amine becomes less thermodynamically favourable.     

Stereoelectronic effects in Menshutkin‐type SN2 reactions: theoretical study based on through‐space/bond orbital interaction analysis

Through‐space/bond orbital interaction analysis has been applied to investigate the stereoelectronic effects on stabilizing the transition state of Menshutkin‐type S_N2 reactions. The mechanism of how the substituent effects work on accelerating the reactions has been demonstrated from orbital interaction perspective. The geometrical structures and Mulliken charge distributions have been compared to elucidate the substituent effects for the S_N2 reaction center. It is found that the substituents lower the activation energies by strengthening the orbital interactions in the S_N2 reaction process. When electron‐donating and electron‐accepting substituents (–C₆H₅ and –CHO) are introduced to the same central carbon at the reaction center, the symmetry allows the π–π* interactions among the donor and acceptor in the transition state. It stabilizes the transition state much more than the reactant complex. And the π–π* interactions are estimated to decrease about 2.28 kcal/mol of the energy for transition state. The σ‐like orbitals of the partial bond around the central carbon are reactive, and the σ–π* orbital interactions stabilize the reactant complex much more than the π–σ* interaction. When the σ–π* and π–σ* interactions are deleted from the system, the activation energy increases and turns close to the values of the systems which are without such substituents. It can be concluded that the π–π*, σ–π*, and π–σ* interactions cooperatively accelerates the S_N2 reaction by stabilizing its transition state. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mechanism of aromatic nucleophilic substitution reaction between ethanolamine and fluoro‐nitrobenzenes: an investigation by kinetic measurements and DFT calculations

We have studied the kinetics and elucidated the mechanism by DFT calculation of the reaction between ethanolamine (EOA) and 1‐fluoro‐2,4‐dinitrobenzene (DNFB) in acetonitrile and toluene. To determine the contribution of the nitro group, the activation energy of the reaction between ethanolamine and 1‐fluoro‐2‐nitrobenzene (MNFB) vs. DNFB was determined in acetonitrile and calculated by DFT method. Kinetic measurements reveal that the reaction is faster in acetonitrile than in toluene. The reaction follows overall second‐order kinetics: first order with respect to both EOA and DNFB which is similar to the results reported for reaction between other primary amines and 1‐substituted‐2,4‐dinitrobenzenes. The calculations by using DFT methods reveal that the mechanism of the reaction involves the formation and decomposition of a Meisenheimer complex (MC). DFT calculations also reveal that the activation energy of the reaction is highest in vacuum and decreases with increasing polarity of the solvent reaching a minimum in acetonitrile. In addition, activation energies obtained by both DFT calculations and experiments show that the reactivity of MNFB is less than that of DNFB showing the effect of the 4‐nitro group. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Kinetic studies of the reaction of phenacyl bromide derivatives with sulfur nucleophiles

The reaction of the substituted phenacyl bromides 1a–e and 2a–e with thioglycolic acid 3 and thiophenol 6 in methanol underwent nucleophilic substitution S_N2 mechanism to give the corresponding 2‐sulfanylacetic acid derivatives 4a–e, 5a–e and benzenethiol derivatives 9a–e, 10a–e. The reactants and products were identified by mass spectra, infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance. We measured the kinetics of these reactions conductometrically in methanol at a range of temperatures. The rates of the reactions were found to fit the Hammett equation and correlated with σ‐Hammett values. The ρ values for thioglycolic acid were 1.22–1.21 in the case of 4‐substituted phenacyl bromide 1a–e, while in the case of the nitro derivatives 2a–e they were 0.39–0.35. The ρ values for thiophenol were 0.97–0.83 in the case of 4‐substituted phenacyl bromide 1a–e, while in the case of the nitro derivatives 2a–e they were 0.79–0.74. The Brønsted‐type plot was linear with a α = ?0.41 ± 0.03. The kinetic data and structure‐reactivity relationships indicate that the reaction of 1a–e and 2a–e with thiol nucleophiles proceeds by a concerted mechanism. The plot of log k₄₅ versus log k₃₀, the plot log(k_x,3‐NO2/k_H) versus log(k_x/k_H), and the Brønsted‐type correlation indicate that the reactions of the thiol nucleophiles with the substituted phenacyl bromides 1a–e and 2a–e are attributed to the electronic nature of the substituents. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reactivity of sodium arenesulfinates in the substitution reaction to γ‐functionalized allyl bromides

The kinetics of nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reactions of γ‐functionalized allyl bromides with non‐substituted and p‐substituted sodium arenesulfinates has been studied. Both the structure of allyl bromides and nucleophilicity of arenesulfinate ions exerted a significant effect on the values of the kinetic parameters such as the second‐order rate constants k, activation energy E_A, and changes in the entropy ΔS^≠, enthalpy ΔH^≠, and free energy ΔG^≠ of the formation of the activated complex from reactants. Based on the evaluation of kinetic parameters, the reactants could be arranged, according to their decreasing reactivity in the S_N2‐reactions as follows: p‐toluenesulfinate ion > benzenesulfinate ion > p‐chlorobenzenesulfinate ion and 4‐bromo‐2‐butenenitrile > 1,3‐ dibromopropene, respectively. Comparison was also made between the kinetic data obtained and some delocalization reactivity indexes for both the substrates and nucleophiles. The enthalpy–entropy compensation effect was observed for the reactions of sodium arenesulfinates with γ‐functionalized allyl bromides. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

锗烯与异氰酸多通道反应的理论计算

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP方法研究了单重态GeH2与HNCO的反应机理。在B3LYP/6-311++G**水平上对反应物,中间体,过渡态进行了全几何参数优化,通过频率分析和IRC确定中间体和过渡态,用QCISD(T)/6-311++G**方法计算了各个驻点的单点能。计算表明单重态的锗烯与异氰酸的反应有抽提氧、插入N-H键、抽提亚氨基的共七条反应路径。采用经Winger校正的Eyring过渡态理论分别计算了1个大气压、不同温度下反应势垒较低通道的热力学及动力学性质,结果表明插入N-H键反应（GeH2+HNCO→IM7→TS6→P2）通道在温度400K~1400K内,有较高的平衡常数和反应速率常数,为主反应通道,主产物为GeH3NCO。     

Comparative study of the nucleophilic attack step in the proteases catalytic activity: A theoretical study

ABSTRACT

The nucleophilic attack step of the hydrolysis reaction mechanism of the glycine-glycine peptide bond mediated by the enzymatic action of various proteases was elucidated by means of DFT calculations. Five different protease models were considered; namely: cysteine (Cys), threonine (Thr), serine (Ser), aspartyl (Asp) proteases, and a metalloprotease containing zinc (Zn). The model was simplified in order to gain information about the nucleophilic attack in this type of reaction. As a comparative study, this work is focused on the trend in the reactivity of the models. According to the computed activation energies, the reactivity order was determined as follows Cys?<?Thr?<?Ser?<?Zn?<?Asp, being in all cases faster than the uncatalysed spontaneous hydrolysis. A further analysis of the reactions by means of the reaction force approach showed that the structural changes accounts for 65–90% of the total activation energy. Moreover, a natural bond orbital analysis allows the reactions to be classified as synchronous with a late transition state for all cases. Systems analogous to the Cys-protease can be proposed as a promising candidate for the design of mimetic systems capable to cleavage amide bonds.     

Computational studies of the effects of ortho‐ring and para‐ring activation on the kinetics of SNAr reactions of 1‐chloro‐2‐nitrobenzene and 1‐phenoxy‐2‐nitrobenzene with aniline

Computational studies are reported for reactions of 4‐substituted‐1‐chloro‐2,6‐dinitrobenzenes 1 , 6‐substituted‐1‐chloro‐2,4‐dinitrobenzenes 2 and some of the corresponding 1‐phenoxy derivatives 3 and 4 with aniline in the gas phase. The effects of substituent groups in the calculated energy values for reactants 1–4 , transition states structures, intermediates and products formed in the reactions between the compounds and anilines have been compared. Calculated bonds length and angles from optimized structures of the reactants were comparable with values reported for some of compounds 1–4 obtained by X‐ray crystal structures analysis. Generally, the decomposition of the Meisenheimer intermediate to the products requires more energy compared with the reactants except for when R = H. The order of stabilization of the intermediate was found to reflect the relative order of activation by substituents in the substrates. The 4‐substituted‐1‐chloro‐2,6‐dinitrobenzenes 1 and the phenoxy derivatives 3 were found to be more stable than their corresponding 6‐substituted analogues. This is an indication that the rate of nucleophilic attack at 1‐position will increase with increasing ring activation but may be reduced by steric repulsion at the reaction centre that increases in the order Cl < OPh. However, the steric hindrance to the steps involved in nucleophilic substitution by aniline is significantly increased when the substrates contain two ortho‐substituents. In most cases, the rate determining step is the decomposition of the σ‐adduct intermediate except with 1‐chloro‐2,6‐dinitrobenzenes 1 and 6‐substituted‐1‐chloro‐2,4‐dinitrobenzenes 2 , either because of reduction in ring activation or the presence of bulky ortho‐substituents in the chloro compounds 1 and 2 . Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A DFT study of transition structures and reactivity in solvolyses of tert‐butyl chloride,cumyl chlorides,and benzyl chlorides

DFT computations were performed on the S_N1 and S_N2 solvolyses of substituted cumyl chlorides and benzyl chlorides in ethanol and water, by increasing stepwise the C? Cl distance and by optimization. The total energy increases with the increase in the Cl? C distance in S_N1 reactions, while free energy of activation pass through maximum. To validate the results, the calculated free energies of activation were compared with data obtained by kinetic measurements. The structural parameters of the transition states were correlated with the Hammett substituent constants and compared with the data of hydrolyses of tert‐butyl chloride and methyl chloride, which proceed with known mechanisms. Conclusions on the mechanisms of the reactions were driven from the effect of substituents on free energies of activation. Cumyl chlorides substituted with electron‐donating (e‐d) groups solvolyze with S_N1 mechanism, while the reactions of substrates that bear electron‐withdrawing groups proceed with weak nucleophilic assistance of the solvent. Benzyl chlorides hydrolyze through an S_N2 pathway except those derivatives that have strongly e‐d groups, where the reaction has S_N1 character, but a weak nucleophilic assistance of the water should also be taken into consideration. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

二氯卡宾与异氰酸反应机理的量子化学研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP方法研究了CCl2自由基与HNCO的反应机理,并在B3LYP/6-311++G**水平上对反应物,中间体,过渡态进行了全几何参数优化,通过频率分析和IRC确定中间体和过渡态。为了得到更精确的能量值,用QCISD(T)/6-311++G**方法计算了各个驻点的单点能,计算结果表明单重态的二氯卡宾与异氰酸的反应有抽提氧、插入N-H键、抽提亚氨基的路径。而插入通道HNCO + CCl2→IM3 →TS2→P2(C2Cl2ONH) 反应能垒最低, 为主反应通道。     

二氯卡宾与异氰酸反应机理的量子化学研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP方法研究了单、三重态CCl2与HNCO的反应机理,在B3LYP/6-311++G”水平上对反应物,中间体,过渡态进行了全几何参数优化,通过频率分析和IRC确定中间体和过渡态,并用G3方法计算了各个驻点的单点能.计算结果表明:单重态的CCl2与HNCO的反应有抽提氧、插入N-H键、抽提亚氨基的路...     

异硫氰酸与CF2自由基反应机理的量子化学研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP方法研究了CF₂自由基与HNCS的反应机理,并在B3LYP/6-311++G**水平上对反应物、中间体、过渡态进行了全几何参数优化,通过频率分析和IRC确定中间体和过渡态的真实性.为了得到更精确的能量值,又用CCSD（T）/6-311++G**方法计算了在B3LYP/6-311++G**水平优化后的各个驻点的相对能量.根据统计热力学及用Winger校正的Eyring过渡态理论,利用自编程序,计算不同温度下低势垒反应的平衡常数和速率常数.计算结果表明,单重态的CF₂自由基与HNCS的反应有6条可能的反应通道,三重态的CF₂自由基与HNCS的反应有1条反应通道.其中单重态反应通道CF₂+HNCS→IM1→TS1→IM2 HCF₂NCS（P1）为主反应通道.     

SiF2自由基与异硫氰酸反应机理的理论研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP 方法研究了CF2 自由基与HNCS 的反应机理, 并在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平上对反应物、中间体、过渡态进行了全几何参数优化. 为了得到更精确的能量值,又用CCSD(T)/6-311＋＋G**方法计算了在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平优化后的各个驻点的相对能量. 根据统计热力学及用Winger校正的Eyring过渡态理论,利用自编程序,计算不同温度下低势垒反应的平衡常数和速率常数.计算结果表明单重态的CF2 自由基与HNCS 的反应有6条反应通道,三重态的CF2 自由基与HNCS 的反应有1条反应通道.其中单重态反应通道CF2＋HNCS→IM1→TS1→IM2 HCF2NCS(P1)为主反应通道.     

CF2自由基与HNCO反应机理的量子化学研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP 方法研究了CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应机理, 并在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平上对反应物、中间体、过渡态进行了全几何参数优化, 通过频率分析和内禀反应坐标(IRC)确定了中间体和过渡态.为了得到更精确的能量值, 又用CCSD(T)/6-311＋＋G**方法计算了在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平优化后的各个驻点的相对能量. 根据统计热力学及用Winger校正的Eyring过渡态理论,利用自编程序,计算不同温度下低势垒反应的平衡常数和速率常数.计算结果表明单重态的CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应有四条反应通道, 三重态的CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应有两条反应通道.其中单重态反应通道CF2＋HNCO→1IM1→1TS1→1IM2→1TS2→1IM3→CF2NH＋CO(P1)为主反应通道.三重态反应通道CF2＋HNCO→36IM1→36TS1→36IM2→HCF2+NCO(3P5)为主反应通道.     

CF2自由基与HNCO反应机理的量子化学研究

采用密度泛函理论B3LYP 方法研究了CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应机理, 并在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平上对反应物、中间体、过渡态进行了全几何参数优化, 通过频率分析和内禀反应坐标(IRC)确定了中间体和过渡态.为了得到更精确的能量值, 又用CCSD(T)/6-311＋＋G**方法计算了在B3LYP/6-311＋＋G**水平优化后的各个驻点的相对能量. 根据统计热力学及用Winger校正的Eyring过渡态理论,利用自编程序,计算不同温度下低势垒反应的平衡常数和速率常数.计算结果表明单重态的CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应有四条反应通道, 三重态的CF2 自由基与HNCO 的反应有两条反应通道.其中单重态反应通道CF2＋HNCO→1IM1→1TS1→1IM2→1TS2→1IM3→CF2NH＋CO(P1)为主反应通道.三重态反应通道CF2＋HNCO→36IM1→36TS1→36IM2→HCF2+NCO(3P5)为主反应通道.