Band offset calculations applied to III–V nitride quantum well device engineering

Band offset calculations for zinc-blende pseudomorphically strained Al_1−xGa_xN/Al_1−yGa_yN and In_xGa_1−xN/In_yGa_1−yN interfaces have been performed on the basis of the model solid theory combined with ab initio calculations. From the results obtained, we have calculated, separately, the valence and conduction band discontinuities of In_xGa_1−xN/GaN and GaN/Al_1−xGa_xN as a function of the indium and gallium contents respectively. Using the latter results, we have extended our study to simulate band discontinuities for strained Ga_1−xIn_xN/relaxed Al_1−yGa_yN heterointerfaces. Information derived from this investigation will be useful for the design of lattice mismatched heterostructures in modeling optoelectronic devices emitting at ultraviolet to near infrared wavelengths.     

Optical-field profiles in InxGa1−xN -MQW laser structures

In this paper, we calculated the optical fields for In_xGa_1−xN-multiquantum well (MQW) laser structures. Two different optical cavities are compared, the conventional step separate confinement heterostructure (Step) and a graded-index (GRIN) structure with a parabolic variation of the Al content in the Al_xGa_1−xN guide layers. A comparison is made regarding the confinement factor, near- and far-field patterns. An anomalous behavior for the confinement factor is observed in the structure, and it can be eliminated by choosing an appropriated combination of the layer’s thicknesses forming the waveguide. For Al_xGa_1−xN, an improved expression for the refractive index is presented, which shows better agreement with experimental data than previously reported expressions.     

LP MOVPE growth of AlGalnP/GalnP and its application to visible laser diodes

High-quality and uniform bulk layers of (Al _x Ga_1–x )_0.5In_0.5P (x=0–0.7) and AlGalnP/GainP quantum wells (QWs) are grown on 2°-off (100) GaAs substrates by low-pressure metal organic vapour phase epitaxy at a low growth rate of 0.3 nm s^-1. The amount of lattice mismatch and the variation of PL peak energy of (Al_0.5Ga_0.5)_0.5In_0.5P on the 50-mm substrate are less than 6×10^-4 and 2 meV, respectively. (Al_0.5Ga_0.5)_0.5In_0.5P/Ga_0.5In_0.5P SQWs show narrow PL spectra even from a 0.6 nm well measured at 20 K. The variation of PL peak energy from (Al_0.5Ga_0.5)_0.5In_0.5P/Ga_0.5In_0.5P MQWs is less than 10 meV. Also, as-cleaved AlGalnP/GalnP lasers fabricated by a three-step MOVPE show a pulsed threshold current of 82 mA at room temperature, output power of 12 mW, and the lasing wavelength at 668.2 nm.     

Semiempirical tight-binding modelling of III-N-based heterostructures

In this work, we present a second nearest neighbour sp³s^* semi-empirical tight-binding theory to calculate the electronic band structure of heterostructures based on group III-N binary semiconductors and their ternaries. The model Hamiltonian includes the second nearest neighbour (2nn) interactions, the spin–orbit splitting and the nonlinear variations of the atomic energy levels and the bond length with ternary mole fraction. Using this sp³s^* tight-binding approach, we investigated the electronic band structure of Al_1−xGa_xN/GaN and In_1−xGa_xN/GaN heterostructures as a function of composition and interface strain for the entire composition range (0≤x≤1). There is an excellent agreement between the model predictions and experiment for the principal bandgaps at Γ, L and X symmetry points of the Brillouin zone for AlN, GaN and InN binaries and Al_1−xGa_xN and In_1−xGa_xN ternaries. The model predicts that the composition effects on the valence band offsets is linear, but on the conduction band offsets is nonlinear and large when the interface strain and deformation potential is large.     

Low gain threshold density of a single InGaP quantum well sandwiched by digital alloy

A single In_0.49Ga_0.51P quantum well sandwiched by In_0.49Ga_0.51P/In_0.49(Ga_0.6Al_0.4)_0.51P digital alloy structures was investigated in terms of optical modal gain, where gain saturation effects were also considered for both changes in wavelength and stripe length by using a modal gain contour map analysis. We found the gain threshold density is considerably lower by an order of magnitude when compared to the Mott density (∼2 × 10¹² cm⁻²), which can be attributed to a carrier-harvesting effect through the mini-band of the digital alloy.     

Blue cathodoluminescence from thulium implanted AlxGa1−xN and InxAl1−xN

Room temperature cathodoluminescence (RTCL) was obtained from Tm implanted Al_xGa_1−xN with different AlN contents (in the range 0≤x≤0.2) and from implanted In_xAl_1−xN with different InN contents (x=0.13 and 0.19) close to the lattice match with GaN. The Tm³⁺ emission spectrum depends critically on the host material. The blue emission from Al_xGa_1−xN:Tm peaks in intensity for an AlN content of x0.11. The emission is enhanced by up to a factor of 50 times with an increase of annealing temperature from 1000 to 1300 C. The blue emission from In_0.13Al_0.87N:Tm, annealed at 1200 C, is more than ten times stronger than that from Al_xGa_1−xN:Tm, x≤0.2. However, the intensity decreases significantly as the InN fraction increases from 0.13 to 0.19.     

Role of auger recombination in the determination of the threshold current density of a green-wavelength laser

The possibility of the creation a green-wavelength laser has been theoretically examined. The gain and threshold current density in the laser based on a (Al_0.5Ga_0.5)_0.49In_0.51P/(Al_0.6Ga_0.4)_0.49In_0.51P double hetero-structure have been calculated. It has been shown that, at a sufficiently high doping of an active region with an n-type impurity, the minimum threshold current density is reached when the coefficient of the eeh process of Auger recombination is larger than the coefficient of the ehh process.     

Materials and device properties of pseudomorphic In x Ga1−x As/Al0.3Ga0.7As/GaAs high electron mobility transistors (0<x<0.5)

Modulation doped Al_0.3Ga_0.7As/In _x Ga_1–x As/GaAs high electron mobility transistor structures for device application have been grown using molecular beam epitaxy. Initially the critical layer thickness for InAs mole fractions up to 0.5 was investigated. For InAs mole fractions up to 0.35 good agreement with theoretical considerations was observed. For higher InAs mole fractions disagreement occurred due to a strong decrease of the critical layer thickness. The carrier concentration for Al_0.3Ga_0.7As/In _x Ga_1–x As/GaAs high electron mobility transistor structures with a constant In _x Ga_1–x As quantum well width was investigated as a function of InAs mole fraction. If the In _x Ga_1–x As quantum well width is grown at the critical layer thickness the maximum carrier concentration is obtained for an InAs mole fraction of 0.37. A considerable higher carrier concentration in comparison to single-sided -doped structures was obtained for the structures with -doping on both sides of the In _x Ga_1–x As quantum well. Al_0.3Ga_0.7As/In _x Ga_1–x As/GaAs high electron mobility transistor structures with InAs mole fractions in the range 0–0.35 were fabricated for device application. For the presented field effect transistors best device performance was obtained for InAs mole fractions in the range 0.25–0.3. For the field effect transistors with an InAs mole fraction of 0.25 and a gate length of 0.15 m a f _T of 115 GHz was measured.Dedicated to H.-J. Queisser on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Highly strained InxGa(1−x)As−InyAl(1−y)As (x>0.8,y<0.3) layers for short wavelength QWIP and QCL structures grown by MBE

Highly strained quantum cascade laser (QCL) and quantum well infrared photodetector (QWIPs) structures based on In_xGa_(1−x)As−In_yAl_(1−y)As (x>0.8,y<0.3) layers have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy. Conditions of exact stoichiometric growth were used at a temperature of 420°C to produce structures that are suitable for both emission and detection in the 2–5 μm mid-infrared regime. High structural integrity, as assessed by double crystal X-ray diffraction, room temperature photoluminescence and electrical characteristics were observed. Strong room temperature intersubband absorption in highly tensile strained and strain-compensated In_0.84Ga_0.16As/AlAs/In_0.52Al_0.48As double barrier quantum wells grown on InP substrates is demonstrated. Γ–Γ intersubband transitions have been observed across a wide range of the mid-infrared spectrum (2–7 μm) in three structures of differing In_0.84Ga_0.16As well width (30, 45, and 80 Å). We demonstrate short-wavelength IR, intersubband operation in both detection and emission for application in QC and QWIP structures. By pushing the InGaAs–InAlAs system to its ultimate limit, we have obtained the highest band offsets that are theoretically possible in this system both for the Γ–Γ bands and the Γ–X bands, thereby opening up the way for both high power and high efficiency coupled with short-wavelength operation at room temperature. The versatility of this material system and technique in covering a wide range of the infrared spectrum is thus demonstrated.     

Comparison of the band alignment of strained and strain-compensated GaInNAs QWs on GaAs and InP substrates

We present a comparison of the band alignment of the Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y active layers on GaAs and InP substrates in the case of conventionally strained and strain-compensated quantum wells. Our calculated results present that the band alignment of the tensile-strained Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y quantum wells on InP substrates is better than than that of the compressively strained Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y quantum wells on GaAs substrates and both substrates provide deeper conduction wells. Therefore, tensile-strained Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y quantum wells with In concentrations of x0.53 on InP substrates can be used safely from the band alignment point of view when TM polarisation is required. Our calculated results also confirm that strain compensation can be used to balance the strain in the well material and it improves especially the band alignment of dilute nitride Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y active layers on GaAs substrates. Our calculations enlighten the intrinsic superiority of N-based lasers and offer the conventionally strained and strain-compensated Ga_1−xIn_xN_yAs_1−y laser system on GaAs and InP substrates as ideal candidates for high temperature operation.     

Prediction of Γ-L and L-X crossovers in Ga<Subscript>x</Subscript>Al<Subscript>1-x</Subscript>Sb alloys by empirical pseudopotential method

Using empirical pseudopotential method Γ-L crossover is found for the Ga_0.74Al_0.26Sb. The conduction band minimum is observed to switch at the (0.87, 0, 0) point for Ga_0.51Al_0.49Sb which shifts to the X point for Ga_0.21Al_0.79Sb and remains at X leading finally to indirect band gap in AlSb. Band structure calculations for a large number of alloys are performed and bowing parameters b_X and b_L are proposed for the E_X and E_L respectively. Our findings may serve as directive to select the materials in a range of composition to examine the bowing parameters and thereby effective mass experimentally for the Ga_xAl_1-xSb alloys.     

Electron g-factor in a gated InAs-inserted-channel In0.53Ga0.47As/In0.52Al0.48As heterostructure

We report on electron g-factor in an InAs-inserted In_0.53Ga_0.47As/In_0.52Al_0.48As heterostructure. The gate voltage dependence of g-factor is obtained from the coincidence method. The obtained g-factor values are surprisingly smaller than the g-factor value of bulk InAs, and it is close to the bare g-factor value of In_0.53Ga_0.47As. The large change in g-factor is observed by applying the gate voltage. The obtained gate voltage dependence is not simply explained by the energy dependence of g-factor.     

Separated AlxIn1−xN quantum dots grown by plasma-reactive co-sputtering

Separated Al_xIn_1−xN quantum dots (QDs) embedded in amorphous AlN films have been produced by radio-frequency co-sputtering technique on silicon (1 1 1) and quartz glass substrates. The mean size and density of Al_xIn_1−xN QDs can be conveniently monitored by deposition parameters. Transparent electron microscope, and X-ray diffraction were used to detect the structure of the Al_xIn_1−xN QDs system; field-emission scanning-electron microscope was adopted to measure the surface morphology and anticipate the size of the QDs; X-ray photoelectronic spectroscopy was used to measure the stoichiometric ratios of the QDs.     

Raman spectroscopy of acoustic phonons in periodic and Fibonacci superlattices

Results of Raman scattering experiments on (a) periodic superlattices made up of GaAs/In_xGa_1−xAs layers with high indium concentrations, (b) GaAs/Ga_1−xAl_xAs Fibonacci superlattices, are presented. We discuss the observed peak positions and intensities using the continuum theory of acoustic wave propagation in layered media and the photo-elastic coupling model.     

Experimental investigation of long-wavelength optical lattice vibrations in quaternary AlxInyGa1−x−yN alloys and comparison with results from the pseudo-unit cell model

Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopies have been utilized to measure long-wavelength optical lattice vibrations of high-quality quaternary Al_xIn_yGa_1−x−yN thin films at room temperature. The Al_xIn_yGa_1−x−yN films were grown on c-plane (0 0 0 1) sapphire substrates with AlN as buffer layers using plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy (PA-MBE) technique with aluminum (Al) mole fraction x ranging from 0.0 to 0.2 and constant indium (In) mole fraction y=0.1. Pseudo unit cell (PUC) model was applied to investigate the phonons frequency, mode number, static dielectric constant, and high frequency dielectric constant of the Al_xIn_yGa_1−x−yN mixed crystals. The theoretical results were compared with the experimental results obtained from the quaternary samples by using Raman and FTIR spectroscopies. The experimental results indicated that the Al_xIn_yGa_1−x−yN alloy had two-mode behavior, which includes A₁(LO), E₁(TO), and E₂(H). Thus, these results are in agreement with the theoretical results of PUC model, which also revealed a two-mode behavior for the quaternary nitride. We also obtained new values of E₁(TO) and E₂(H) for the quaternary nitride samples that have not yet been reported in the literature.     

Electron ionization rate in III–V ternary semiconductors

Theoretical calculations are presented for the ionization rate of electrons in III–V ternary semiconductor compounds considering alloy scattering and carrier-carrier interaction, in addition to optical phonon scattering and ionization scattering. However, alloy scattering is found to be a weak interaction. Fairly good agreement is obtained for Ga_1–x In _x As withx=0.14 and 0.53 with the experimental results and for Ga_0.5 Al_0.5 As with the existing theoretical result which used an indirect method. The alloy scattering potential has been taken in the form of energy band-gap difference. The calculations can be used for any ternary semi-conductor.     

Influence of the built-in electric field on luminescent properties in self-formed single InxGa1−xN/GaN quantum dots

Based on the framework of effective-mass approximation and variational approach, luminescent properties are investigated theoretically in self-formed wurtzite In_xGa_1−xN/GaN quantum dots (QDs), considering the three-dimensional confinement of electron and hole pair and the strong built-in electric field effects due to the piezoelectricity and spontaneous polarization. The exciton binding energy, the emission wavelength and the oscillator strength as functions of the different structural parameters (the height L and the radius R) are calculated with and without the built-in electric field in detail. The results elucidate that the strong built-in electric field has a significant influence on luminescent properties of In_xGa_1−xN/GaN QDs.     

Comparative study of (1 0 0) and (1 1 1)B InGaAs single quantum well laser diodes

In this work, a series of identical In_xGa_1−xAs/Al_yGa_1−yAs single quantum well laser diodes, grown on (1 0 0) and (1 1 1)B GaAs substrates, have been thoroughly studied. For all samples, clear evidence of reduced threshold current densities in the (1 1 1)B substrate has been observed in electroluminescence spectra at 17 and 300 K. Modelling of the devices, based on a self-consistent solution of Schrödinger–Poisson's equations, was utilised in order to reproduce the experimental results. The model incorporates strain and piezoelectric effects on the quantum well states, free carrier screening, overlap integral computation, and optical gain calculation. The underlying mechanism, that explains the threshold reduction observed in the (1 1 1)B laser diodes, is discussed based on the results of the modelling.     

Influence of the built-in electric field on luminescent properties in self-formed single-GaN/AlxGa1−xN quantum dots

Based on the framework of effective-mass approximation and variational approach, the luminescent properties are investigated theoretically in self-formed wurtzite GaN/Al_xGa_1−xN single-quantum dots (QDs). Considering the three-dimensional (3D) confinement of electron and hole pair and the strong built-in electric field effects, the exciton binding energy, the emission wavelength and the oscillator strength are calculated with and without the built-in electric field in detail. The results elucidate that the strong built-in electric field has a significant influence on luminescent properties of GaN/Al_xGa_1−xN QDs.     

Different temperature dependence of carrier transport properties between AlxGa1-xN/InyGa1-yN/GaN and AlxGa1-xN/GaN heterostructures

The temperature dependence of carrier transport properties of AlxGa1-xN/InyGa1-yN/GaN and AlxGa1-xN/GaN heterostructures has been investigated.It is shown that the Hall mobility in Al0.25Ga0.75N/In0.03Ga0.97N/GaN heterostructures is higher than that in Al0.25Ga0.75N/GaN heterostructures at temperatures above 500 K,even the mobility in the former is much lower than that in the latter at 300 K.More importantly,the electron sheet density in Al0.25Ga0.75N/In0.03Ga0.97N/GaN heterostructures decreases slightly,whereas the electron sheet density in Al0.25Ga0.75N/GaN heterostructures gradually increases with increasing temperature above 500 K.It is believed that an electron depletion layer is formed due to the negative polarization charges at the InyGa1-yN/GaN heterointerface induced by the compressive strain in the InyGa1-yN channel,which e-ectively suppresses the parallel conductivity originating from the thermal excitation in the underlying GaN layer at high temperatures.