Modulated differential scanning calorimetry

Modulated DSC^TM (MDSC) is a new, patent-pending extension to conventional DSC which provides information about the reversing and nonreversing characteristics of thermal events, as well as the ability to directly measure heat capacity. This additional information aids interpretation and allows unique insights into the structure and behaviour of materials., A number of examples of its use are described.     

Multicycle differential scanning calorimetry

Multicycle Differential Scanning Calorimetry (MCDSC) is a procedure where repeated temperature cycles are executed and the measured data are superimposed for a selected number of cycles. Temperature cycles with a single sample are executed under selected experimental conditions in one of these procedures, namely, the MCDSC_s. The second one, MCDSC_m is a procedure in which every identical temperature cycle starts with a new sample of the same substance of a similar mass. The procedure MCDSC_s using the same sample for a number of cycles is only applicable for substances and materials which are chemically and physically stable under the selected experimental conditions. The application of MCDSC enhances two extremely important qualities of a DSC measurement, namely, the sensitivity and the statistical base, both qualities with respect to the final data elucidated. Another possibility by MCDSC also related to the enhanced sensitivity can lead the discovery of a phenomenon which hitherto has not been observed. The most important result of any MCDSC application is the determination of the mean DSC curve within the temperature interval of interest by superimposing the single curves point by point and by the division of the calorimetric values obtained with the number of scans evaluated. The signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) for the mean curve can be compared with the value determined for one or even for all the single curves measured yielding the improvement factor achieved with a MCDSC measurement. This experimentally determined improvement of the SNR can be compared with the value given on a statistical consideration by Gauss as the square root of the number of cycles evaluated. The main aims of this article are to prove the practical application of the procedure and the efficiency in case of rather small sample masses. Substances were selected with known enthalpy transitions and, in addition, polystyrene was taken for a determination of the data for the glass transition by MCDSC. Rather small sample masses in the order of micrograms as well as the experimental conditions have been selected for the measurements with 4,4′-azoxyanisole and n-hexatriacontane with the expectation to get a value of SNR for the single curves of about unity or even below. Two aims should be achieved with these experiments. First, the multicycle procedures and the data evaluation developed should be capable of establishing, after performing of a certain number of cycles, a mean curve showing an improvement over the SNR with respect to the single curves. Second, we should be able to get a rough estimation of the lower limit of the SNR for a single curve, below the instrumental noise level of the DSC used, necessary to achieve with a MCDSC experiment a mean curve with a clearly visible peak.     

Modulated differential scanning calorimetry

The Modulated Differential Calorimetry (MDSC) is applied to the determination of the reversibility in the cholesteryl chloride, which presents a cholesteric monotropic phase between the isotropic and crystalline states. The experimental modulation parameters that govern this method i.e. frequency, amplitude and heating/cooling rate, are determined. MDSC curves and complementary thermomicroscopical observations assign melting, crystallization and liquid cholesteric transition as non reversing, and clarification as reversing.     

Modulated differential scanning calorimetry

Modulated-temperature differential scanning calorimetry was used to measure the glass transition temperature,T _g, the heat capacity relaxation in the glassy state and the increment of heat capacity, C_p, in the glass transition region for several polymers. The differential of heat capacity with respect to temperature was used to analyseT _g and C_p simply and accurately. These measurements are not affected by complex thermal histories.     

Temperatures in differential scanning calorimetry

A recently described method is used to characterise thermal gradients in a DSC-2 and the results are compared with a conventional temperature calibration. Under certain circumstances the latter may be in error by several degrees with consequent adverse effects on calculated heat capacities. The errors are removed when allowance is made for variations in thermal lag from sample to sample.     

Thermal gradients in differential scanning calorimetry

A combined static and dynamic temperature calibration is described. The static calibration corrects the instrumental dial temperature reading. The dynamic calibration has instrumental and material components and therefore varies from specimen to specimen. It is obtained from individual DSC curves and so removes uncertainties in sample temperature due to varying mass, geometry, and heating rate. The instrumental performance is improved and specific heats may be obtained to an accuracy of ±1%.     

Modulated temperature differential scanning calorimetry

Modulated temperature differential scanning calorimetry (MTDSC) is used to study simultaneously the evolution of heat flow and heat capacity for the isothermal and non-isothermal cure of an epoxy-anhydride thermosetting system. Modelling of the (heat flow related) chemical kinetics and the (heat capacity related) mobility factor contributes to a quantitative construction of Temperature-Time-Transformation (TTT) and Continuous-Heating-Transformation (CHT) diagrams for the thermosetting system.     

Use of cyclic differential scanning calorimetry

Formation of an activated cellulose (Cellulose) species $$CELLULOSE\xrightarrow[{air}]{{heat}}CELLULOSE*$$ is the designated first stage of cellulose degradation in air [1]. Little is known about either the process or the nature of CELLULOSE^*. The transition, designatedT ₂, is observed as an exotherm around 300°C as the sample temperature is raised. No corresponding endotherm is observed on cooling. The process is therefore not reversible but is repeatable as subsequent reheating results in the exotherm being observed again. The exotherm is also found to be oxygen dependant. The effect of all the flame retardant treatments studied was to reduceT ₂ compared to the value for the untreated cotton.     

Quantitative aspects of differential scanning calorimetry

The quantitative performance of differential scanning calorimeters is reviewed. Temperature calibration is discussed in terms of an isothermal correction plus a contribution from thermal lag, this can be derived from individual curves and is valid in both, heating and cooling. It is emphasised that baselines that are drawn to thermal events, such as melting and transition phenomena, must have thermodynamic significance and a general procedure is suggested. When this is used, a power compensation calorimeter calibrated for heat-capacity work can reproduce heats of fusion and transition for a diverse range of materials to better than 1%.     

Purity determination by differential scanning calorimetry

A review of the literature on the DSC method for purity determination is presented, with a discussion of the most important aspects, i.e. theory, sample handling, calibration of the instrument, evaluation of melting curves, and the conditions and accuracy of the measurement of eutectic impurities.     

Fragility of supercooled liquids from differential scanning calorimetry traces: theory and experiment

Starting from the Debye model for frequency-dependent specific heat and the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) model for its relaxation time, an analytic expression is presented for the heat capacity versus temperature trace for differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) of glass transitions, suggesting a novel definition of the glass transition temperature based on a dimensionless criterion. An explicit expression is presented for the transition temperature as a function of the VFT parameters and the cooling rate, and for the slope as a function of fragility. Also a generalization of the results to non-VFT and non-Debye relaxation is given. Two unique ways are proposed to tackle the inverse problem, i.e., to extract the fragility from an experimental DSC trace. Good agreement is found between theoretically predicted DSC traces and experimental DSC traces for glycerol for different cooling rates.     

The limit of detection in differential scanning calorimetry

A procedure is described to determine the limit of detection of DSC instruments by using tiny signals from spontaneous polymorphic transitions of CsCl, K₂Cr₂O₇ and Na₂SO₄. It is shown how such signals can be found well-resolved in DSC diagrams of powder samples. To distinguish them from the baseline noise they should exhibit a height at least twice that of the baseline width. For the instrument employed the corresponding smallest amount of heat, i.e., the limit of detection, was found to be 0.1 mJ.The authors thank Mr. H. Maltry for technical help and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft for support.     

Origins of endothermic peaks in differential scanning calorimetry

The origins of multiple peaks observed by differential scanning calorimetry have been examined in detail for a linear polyethylene fraction crystallized from dilute solution and for bulk-crystallized copolymers of ethylene. At least two major bases are demonstrated. One is melting–recrystallization; the other a consequence of the distribution of crystallite sizes. The melting–recrystallization process, however, often only yields one endothermic peak. This peak is therefore not characteristic of the original crystallites present. In these situations complementary methods need to be used to determine the melting temperature. We have complemented the calorimetric studies with measurement of the crystallite size distribution as determined from the Raman low frequency acoustical mode spectra. A major increase occurs cooperatively in the crystallite size distribution during the initial melting. Most importantly, we have also been able to make a direct comparison between the interfacial free energies of thin crystallites formed from dilute solution and from bulk-crystallized linear polyethylene.     

Design and development in self-reference differential scanning calorimetry

An intermediate range (50–1000°C) self-referencing differential scanning calorimeter (SR-DSC) has been built and its performance evaluated. The SR-DSC measures heat flow across a heat flow metal plate, and any changes to the heat flow caused by a thermal transition occurring in a centrally placed sample is monitored by a temperature difference across the plate. The criteria for high sensitivity are that the circular plate should be as thin as possible and have a low thermal conductivity. The best sensitivity conducive with robust behaviour was achieved with an inconel thermal plate of uniform thickness, 75 m, this gave reproducible results, and the enthalpy of the thermal transition was proportional to sample mass. Calorimeter sensitivity decreased with increasing temperature and a sloped baseline was observed. Both of these effects can be corrected mathematically. An example of the use of the SR-DSC in polymer characterisation was limited to a study of the physical ageing of PET.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.Paper was read at the TAC2001 Conference in Liverpool.     

Starch-lipid interactions studied by differential scanning calorimetry

The amylose-lipid complex shows an endothermic transition around 100 °C in excess water. Complexes were prepared by adding lipids to an amylose-solution, and the precipitated complex was studied in the DSC during a heating and cooling sequence. The thermal stability of the complex depends on the lipid part, and the reversibility during cooling depends on presence of excess lipids.The influence of lipids on the gelatinization of starch was studied by adding lipids to wheat and potato starch, respectively, before the DSC-analysis. Depending on the lipid, an earlier as well as a delayed gelatinisation could be obtained.     

The calorimetric calibration of differential scanning calorimetry cells

In this paper it is shown that in many cases enthalpy determinations can be carried out with a precision <1%. The influences of various sample and instrumental properties are described. The enthalpies of 24 compounds with 30 phase changes (polymorphic transitions or melting points) were redetermined. Twelve of the compounds with 15 transitions in the temperature range 0?670°C are selected and recommended for calorimetric DSC calibration. The linearization of the calibration curve as stated by the manufacturer of the instrument employed was fully confirmed.     

Applications of differential scanning calorimetry to enzyme kinetics

Differential scanning calorimetry has been investigated for its application to the experimental study of the temperature dependence of the kinetics of enzyme—substrate reactions. A reaction cell was developed which allows mixing of enzyme and substrate solutions directly in the calorimeter. The device was used to study the zero-order reaction of acetylcholinesterase with acetylcholine and the first-order reaction of α-chymotrypsin with N-acetyl-l-alanine methyl ester. The reaction cell is found to be satisfactory in the isothermal mode for both first- and zero-order reactions and in the scanning mode for the zero-order reactions but not for the first-order reaction. Limitations of the design are described for general enzyme kinetic studies.